Contemporary philosophies of time

Time in the special theory of relativity

Since the classic interpretation of Einstein’s special theory of relativity by Hermann Minkowski, a Lithuanian-German mathematician, it has been clear that physics has to do not with two entities, space and time, taken separately, but with a unitary entity space-time, in which, however, timelike and spacelike directions can be distinguished. The Lorentz transformations, which in special relativity define shifts in velocity perspectives, were shown by Minkowski to be simply rotations of space-time axes. The Lorentz contraction of moving rods and the time dilatation of moving clocks turns out to be analogous to the fact that different-sized slices of a sausage are obtained by altering the direction of the slice: just as there is still the objective (absolute) sausage, so also Minkowski restores the absolute to relativity in the form of the invariant four-dimensional object, and the invariance (under the Lorentz transformation) of the space-time interval and of certain fundamental physical quantities such as action (which has the dimensions of energy times time, even though neither energy nor time is separately invariant).

Process philosophers charge the Minkowski universe with being a static one. The philosopher of the manifold denies this charge, saying that a static universe would be one in which all temporal cross sections were exactly similar to one another and in which all particles (considered as four-dimensional objects) lay along parallel lines. The actual universe is not like this, and that it is not static is shown in the Minkowski picture by the dissimilarity of temporal cross sections and the nonparallelism of the world lines of particles. The process philosopher may say that change, as thus portrayed in the Minkowski picture (e.g., with the world lines of particles at varying distances from one another), is not true Bergsonian change, so that something has been left out. But if time advances up the manifold, this would seem to be an advance with respect to a hypertime, perhaps a new time direction orthogonal to the old one. Perhaps it could be a fifth dimension, as has been used in describing the de Sitter universe as a four-dimensional hypersurface in a five-dimensional space. The question may be asked, however, what advantage such a hypertime could have for the process philosopher and whether there is process through hypertime. If there is, one would seem to need a hyper-hypertime, and so on to infinity. (The infinity of hypertimes was indeed postulated by John William Dunne, a British inventor and philosopher, but the remedy seems to be a desperate one.) And if no such regress into hypertimes is postulated, it may be asked whether the process philosopher would not find the five-dimensional universe as static as the four-dimensional one. The process philosopher may therefore adopt the expedient of Henri Bergson, saying that temporal process (the extra something that makes the difference between a static and a dynamic universe) just cannot be pictured spatially (whether one supposes four, five, or more dimensions). According to Bergson, it is something that just has to be intuited and cannot be grasped by discursive reason. The philosopher of the manifold will find this unintelligible and will in any case deny that anything dynamic has been left out of his world picture. This sort of impasse between process philosophers and philosophers of the manifold seems to be characteristic of the present-day state of philosophy.

The theory of relativity implies that simultaneity is relative to a frame of axes. If one frame of axes is moving relative to another, then events that are simultaneous relative to the first are not simultaneous relative to the second, and vice versa. This paradox leads to another difficulty for process philosophy over and above those noted earlier. Those who think that there is a continual coming into existence of events (as the present rushes onward into the future) can be asked “Which present?” It therefore seems difficult to make a distinction between a real present (and perhaps past) as against an as-yet-unreal future. Philosophers of the manifold also urge that to talk of events becoming (coming into existence) is not easily intelligible. Enduring things and processes, in this view, can come into existence, but this simply means that as four-dimensional solids they have an earliest temporal cross section or time slice.

When talking in the fashion of Minkowski, it is advisable, according to philosophers of the manifold, to use tenseless verbs (such as the “equals” in “2 + 2 equals 4”). One can say that all parts of the four-dimensional world exist (in this tenseless sense). This is not, therefore, to say that they all exist now, nor does it mean that Minkowski events are “timeless.” The tenseless verb merely refrains from dating events in relation to its own utterance.

The power of the Minkowski representation is illustrated by its manner in dealing with the so-called clock paradox, which deals with two twins, Peter and Paul. Peter remains on Earth (regarded as at rest in an inertial system) while Paul is shot off in a rocket at half the velocity of light, rapidly decelerated at Alpha Centauri (about four light-years away), and shot back to Earth again at the same speed. Assuming that the period of turnabout is negligible compared with those of uniform velocity, Paul, as a four-dimensional object, lies along the sides AC and CB of a space-time triangle, in which A and B are the points of his departure and return and C that of his turnaround. Peter, as a four-dimensional object, lies along AB. Now, special relativity implies that on his return Paul will be rather more than two years younger than Peter. This is a matter of two sides of a triangle not being equal to the third side: AC + CB < AB. The “less than”—symbolized < —arises from the semi-Euclidean character of Minkowski space-time, which calls for minus signs in its metric (or expression for the interval between two events, which is ds = Square root of√c²dt² − dx² − dy² − dz² ). The paradox has been held to result from the fact that, from Paul’s point of view, it is Peter who has gone off and returned, and so the situation is symmetrical, and Peter and Paul should each be younger than the other—which is impossible. This is to forget, however, the asymmetry reflected in the fact that Peter has been in only one inertial system throughout and Paul has not; Paul lies along a bent line, Peter along a straight one.