transcranial magnetic stimulation

transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS), technique based on electromagnetic induction that is used to stimulate neurons in the brain cortex (the outer layer of brain tissue, or gray matter). Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was introduced by English medical physicist Anthony Barker in 1985 as a tool for neuropsychology and later was used therapeutically, primarily in the treatment of psychiatric disorders.

TMS is a noninvasive technique. During the procedure an insulated coil wire, typically encased in plastic, is placed on the scalp. An electric current is briefly discharged through the coil, producing a magnetic field that is capable of penetrating cranial tissue. The magnetic field induces a weak electric current, which activates neurons in the brain. The current typically reaches to about 2 to 3 cm (about 0.8 to 1.2 inches) beneath the scalp, although the depth of penetration depends on the rate of change of the magnetic field and the strength of the current discharged through the coil.

Applications of TMS

The placement of the coil on the scalp can induce various motor and sensory responses. For example, when placed over the motor cortex, a region of the brain that controls movement, the subject’s finger, arm, hand, face, or leg may twitch. If the coil is placed at the back of the subject’s head, over a region involved in vision, the subject may see points of light or moving shadows, phenomena known as phosphenes. The ability of TMS to induce such responses has helped scientists better understand how the body and sensory experiences are organized and represented in the brain, an area of research known as brain mapping.

In addition to brain mapping, TMS has been used for investigations into cognitive and motor functions and disorders, ranging from memory, speech, and language to movement disorders, epilepsy, depression, and pain. TMS has also been used to test whether a brain region is necessary for a task, since it can interfere with motor or cognitive function. When TMS interferes with the subject’s ability to perform a task, the implication is that the area of the brain activated with TMS is indispensable to the task. Findings from TMS can be combined with those of brain-imaging studies to draw conclusions about brain regions involved in task performance. TMS is sometimes used in combination with electroencephalography (EEG), functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), and single-unit electrode recording in animals.

Modifying brain excitability

Pulses of TMS can be applied at different intensities, singly or repeatedly (repetitive TMS, or rTMS), and at low or high frequency. The choice of stimulation parameters determines whether the effects of stimulation are excitatory or inhibitory. For example, two single pulses separated by less than five milliseconds (ms) can produce intracortical inhibition, making the stimulated area less sensitive to stimulation. Two single pulses separated by 10 to 30 ms can produce intracortical facilitation, making the stimulated area more sensitive to stimulation. Likewise, changes in cortical excitability occur with rTMS, with excitability increasing or decreasing according to frequency for a period of time after the train of pulses has finished. Theta-burst stimulation, applying trains of 50-Hz stimulation in bursts every 200 ms, has the effect of depressing cortical activity for a period of time following stimulation.

Specificity of TMS in space and time

The most common type of coil used in TMS is a figure-of-eight shape, in which the effects of the current add up where the wires meet in the coil’s centre. This gives TMS a high focal degree such that specific brain regions can be targeted for stimulation. Although stimulation effects are maximal in the brain region directly beneath the coil, TMS also has secondary effects on connected areas of the cortex. Secondary effects are useful in both basic and applied studies. For example, if the left motor cortex is stimulated, three effects may become apparent: (1) a change in activity in the targeted region of the brain, (2) a change in activity in immediately surrounding areas of the cortex, and (3) a change in the activity of cortical areas directly connected with the stimulated region. The different effects could trigger movement of the right hand, movement of the forearm, or even movement of the left hand. Knowledge of the different effects is important in preventing naive interpretations of the effects of TMS and allows for the study of interactions between different brain areas. Temporal specificity, in which TMS pulses are applied at different locations a few thousandths of a second apart, offers insight into the length of time that it takes for information to travel between different brain areas.