Jackson Browne: …mirrored his activism, especially on Lives in the Balance (1986), which evidenced his vehement opposition to U.S. policy in Central America. His albums in the 1990s and early 2000s largely reflected a return to more personal concerns, though political activism and political songs remained central to his identity.

David Lodge: The essay collection Lives in Writing was published in 2014.

Henry Hathaway: Early work: …next film, the adventure drama The Lives of a Bengal Lancer (1935), which received seven Academy Award nominations, including best picture and Hathaway’s only nod for directing. In 1935 Cooper also starred in Peter Ibbetson, a romance-fantasy.

John Aubrey: His biographies first appeared as Lives of Eminent Men (1813). The definitive presentation of Aubrey’s biographical manuscripts, however, is Brief Lives (2 vol., 1898; edited by Andrew Clark). Though not biographies in the strict sense of the word, Aubrey’s Lives, based on observation and gossip, are profiles graced by picturesque…

Alice Munro: Lives of Girls and Women (1971) was conceived as a novel but developed into a series of interrelated coming-of-age stories. Like much of her fiction, the tales capture the social and cultural milieu of her native southwestern Ontario. Munro embraced the mystery, intimacy, and tension…

art market: The rise of Rome: 1550 publication of Giorgio Vasari’s Lives of the Artists and the expansion of art criticism and theoretical writing. Associated phenomena include the establishment of the first academies of art and the collecting of drawings, an activity pioneered in print by Vasari in his Book of Drawings and followed in the…

Catullus: Life: …in the Roman biographer Suetonius’ Life of Julius Caesar, Catullus’ father was Caesar’s friend and host, but the son nevertheless lampooned not only the future dictator but also his son-in-law Pompey and his agent and military engineer Mamurra with a scurrility that Caesar admitted was personally damaging and would leave…

Samuel Smiles: …wrote many other books, including Lives of the Engineers (3 vol., 1861–62; 5 vol., enlarged ed., 1874), a pioneer study in economic history; and an Autobiography (ed. by T. Mackay, 1905).

Samuel Johnson: The Lives of the Poets of Samuel Johnson: Johnson’s last great work, Prefaces, Biographical and Critical, to the Works of the English Poets (conventionally known as The Lives of the Poets), was conceived modestly as short prefatory notices to an edition of English poetry. When Johnson was approached by some London booksellers in 1777 to write what…

Alban Butler: His monumental achievement, The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints, 4 vol. (1756–59), was considered a sound, critical, and authoritative work. Containing more than 1,600 hagiographies, it went through many editions. It was revised by Herbert Thurston and Donald Attwater in Butler’s Lives of the…

biography: Reference collections: …importance; classified collections such as Lives of the Lord Chancellors (Britain) and biographical manuals devoted to scholars, scientists, and other groups are available in growing numbers; information about living persons is gathered into such national collections as Who’s Who? (Britain), Chi è? (Italy), and Who’s Who in America?

Fra Angelico: Legacy: …his section on Angelico in Lives of the Most Eminent Italian Painters, Sculptors, & Architects, was largely inaccurate in his biographical data but correctly situated Fra Angelico in the framework of the Renaissance.

Sir Thomas North: His The Lives of the Noble Grecians and Romanes, translated in 1579 from Jacques Amyot’s French version of Plutarch’s Parallel Lives, has been described as one of the earliest masterpieces of English prose. Shakespeare borrowed from North’s Lives for his Roman plays—Antony and Cleopatra, Julius Caesar,…

Robert Shiels: …compilation of a five-volume The Lives of the Poets of Great Britain and Ireland, to the Time of Dean Swift (1753), published shortly before his death. Although this work bore the name of Theophilus Cibber (1703–58), playwright and actor, it was actually Shiels who did most of the research for…

Samuel Johnson: The Lives of the Poets of Samuel Johnson: Johnson’s last great work, Prefaces, Biographical and Critical, to the Works of the English Poets (conventionally known as The Lives of the Poets), was conceived modestly as short prefatory notices to an edition of English poetry. When Johnson was approached by some London booksellers in 1777 to write what…

The Lives of the Prophets, pseudepigraphal collection (not in any scriptural canon) of folk stories and legends about the major and minor biblical prophets and a number of other prophetic figures from the Old Testament books of I Kings, II Chronicles, and Nehemiah. The work demonstrates the

Alban Butler: His monumental achievement, The Lives of the Fathers, Martyrs, and Other Principal Saints, 4 vol. (1756–59), was considered a sound, critical, and authoritative work. Containing more than 1,600 hagiographies, it went through many editions. It was revised by Herbert Thurston and Donald Attwater in Butler’s Lives of the…

Aelfric: …Latin grammar, he also wrote Lives of the Saints, Heptateuch (a vernacular language version of the first seven books of the Bible), as well as letters and various treatises.

Gordian I: …writer Flavius Philostratus dedicated his Lives of the Sophists to him. Early in 238, when Gordian was proconsul in Africa, a group of wealthy young landowners resisted and killed the tax collectors who had been sent to Africa by the emperor Maximinus (reigned 235–238). The insurgents proclaimed Gordian emperor, and…

Dorothy Livesay was a Canadian lyric poet whose sensitive and reflective works spanned six decades. Livesay attended several schools, including the Sorbonne in Paris (1931–32), where a study of French Symbolist poets influenced her own work. A second formative element was her experience in Montreal

Dorothy Livesay was a Canadian lyric poet whose sensitive and reflective works spanned six decades. Livesay attended several schools, including the Sorbonne in Paris (1931–32), where a study of French Symbolist poets influenced her own work. A second formative element was her experience in Montreal

JavaScript, computer programming language that is a mainstay of web development, enabling the creation of complex features and interactivity in websites and web applications, as well as other use cases. JavaScript is a scripting language, meaning that its code is interpreted (i.e., translated into

The Life and Death of Colonel Blimp: …officer Clive Candy (played by Roger Livesey). In 1902 in Berlin, Candy impulsively helps Edith Hunter (Deborah Kerr) combat anti-British propaganda and ends up dueling German officer Theo Kretschmar-Schuldorff (Anton Walbrook). Candy and Theo become friends when they recover in the same hospital, and Theo becomes engaged to Edith. In…

livestock, farm animals, with the exception of poultry. In Western countries the category encompasses primarily cattle, sheep, pigs, goats, horses, donkeys, and mules; other animals, such as buffalo, oxen, llamas, or camels, may predominate in the agriculture of other areas. By the 21st century,

livestock farming, raising of animals for use or for pleasure. In this article, the discussion of livestock includes both beef and dairy cattle, pigs, sheep, goats, horses, mules, asses, buffalo, and camels; the raising of birds commercially for meat or eggs (i.e., chickens, turkeys, ducks, geese,

livestreaming, real-time transmission of information over the Internet in video format. Livestreaming is considered a form of broadcasting, with media intended for reception by the general public on a global scale. It differs from other forms of video viewing on the Internet in that video files are

Yves Montand was a French stage and film actor and popular cabaret singer. Though considered by many to be the quintessence of worldly Gallic charm, Montand was actually born in Italy to peasants who fled to Marseille when he was two years of age to escape the Fascist regime of Benito Mussolini. At

Livia Drusilla was Caesar Augustus’s devoted and influential wife who counseled him on affairs of state and who, in her efforts to secure the imperial succession for her son Tiberius, was reputed to have caused the deaths of many of his rivals, including Marcus Claudius Marcellus, Gaius and Lucius

Rome: The Palatine: …known as the Villa of Livia, for his widow, and has small, graceful rooms decorated with paintings. Other private houses, now excavated and visible, were incorporated into the foundations of the spreading imperial structures, which eventually projected down into the Forum on one side and onto the Circus Maximus on…

Aerosmith: …Grammys for the singles “Livin’ on the Edge” and “Crazy.” During this time, Aerosmith was a constant presence on MTV, and the group won numerous music video awards. The band’s next release, Nine Lives (1997), reached the top of the Billboard album chart, and the single “Pink” garnered a…

Cristina Peri Rossi: Peri Rossi’s first book, Viviendo (“Living”), was published in 1963, but it had been written much earlier. It is a collection of narratives with female protagonists. She won several literary prizes early in her career for her poetry and short stories. Her award-winning Los museos abandonados (1969; “Abandoned Museums”)…

W. Lloyd Warner: The Living and the Dead, a study of the symbolic behaviour of Americans and considered one of his most important works, was published in 1959. The Emergent American Society, which he edited, was published in 1967.

Renovated Church, federation of several reformist church groups that took over the central administration of the Russian Orthodox church in 1922 and for over two decades controlled many religious institutions in the Soviet Union. The term Renovated Church is used most frequently to designate the

Leo Tolstoy: Fiction after 1880 of Leo Tolstoy: …drama, Zhivoy trup (written 1900; The Living Corpse), and a harrowing play about peasant life, Vlast tmy (written 1886; The Power of Darkness). After his death, a number of unpublished works came to light, most notably the novella Khadji-Murat (1904; Hadji-Murad), a brilliant narrative about the Caucasus reminiscent of Tolstoy’s…

cost of living, monetary cost of maintaining a particular standard of living, usually measured by calculating the average cost of a number of specific goods and services required by a particular group. The goods and services used as indexes may be the minimum necessary to preserve health or may be

John Barry: …to a Kill (1985), and The Living Daylights (1987)—and another, Dr. No (1962), for which Barry’s score triggered a lawsuit by the credited composer, Monty Norman.

Stanley Elkin: The Living End (1979), a collection of three interwoven novellas about heaven, hell, and Minnesota’s twin cities of Minneapolis and St. Paul, is perhaps Elkin’s best-known work. The novellas examine the mundane concerns of a Twin Cities liquor salesman, as well as God and the…

classification of religions: Other principles: …seen in Söderblom’s Gifford Lectures, The Living God, in which religions were divided according to their doctrines of the relation between human and divine activity in the achievement of salvation. Thus, among higher religions there are those in which humanity alone is responsible for salvation (Buddhism), God alone is responsible…

Hillary Clinton: Senate and 2008 presidential run: …of her White House years, Living History, was published and set sales records; she had received an advance of about $8 million for the book. In 2006 she was easily reelected to the Senate.

Albert Lewin: …René Cardona) his final film, The Living Idol, about an archaeologist (James Robertson Justice) who believes that a young Mexican woman (Liliane Montevecchi) is the reincarnation of an Aztec who was sacrificed to jaguars.

Stanley Donen: Early life and work: … (1944), Anchors Aweigh (1945), and Living in a Big Way (1947), most of them alongside Kelly. Moreover, he received a story credit for renowned choreographer Busby Berkeley’s Take Me Out to the Ball Game (1949), which he also choreographed.

Nollywood: VHS era (1990s–2000s): advent of Nollywood: …notably through the production of Living in Bondage. The movie was directed by Chris Obi Rapu and starred Kenneth Okonkwo and Nnenna Nwabueze. Its plot concerns a down-on-his-luck businessman who sacrifices his wife to a satanic cult to become wealthy. The movie was distributed straight to VHS and soon became…

Steve Buscemi: Film career: Reservoir Dogs, Fargo, and The Big Lebowski: In 1995 Buscemi starred in Living in Oblivion, a behind-the-scenes look at a low-budget, trouble-plagued movie shoot. The indie comedy and Buscemi’s performance as a neurotic director were highly praised. The following year he reteamed with the Coen brothers on the cult classic Fargo. Buscemi was cast as Carl Showalter,…

Janet Frame: …structured work fixated on death; Living in the Maniototo (1979), a surreal exploration of the mind of a woman who appears to have several identities; and The Carpathians (1988), an allegory-laden investigation of language and memory. The latter work earned her the Commonwealth Writers’ Prize (later called the Commonwealth Book…

George Harrison: …Me Peace on Earth),” on Living in the Material World (1973), and “Got My Mind Set on You”, on Cloud Nine (1987). In 1971 Harrison staged two concerts to raise money to fight starvation in Bangladesh, which later became the prototype for star-studded fund-raising events. In 1979 he ventured into…

international law: Treaties: …have been described as “living instruments,” such as human rights treaties that establish an implementation system; in the case of the European Convention on Human Rights of 1950, this approach has allowed the criminalization of homosexuality to be regarded as a violation of human rights in the contemporary period…

Taryn Simon: A Living Man Declared Dead and Other Chapters (2011) focused on what Simon termed “bloodlines.” The project was organized in discrete sections; the centerpiece of each was a portrait of one person. That portrait was accompanied by images of all of the person’s living descendants…

museum: Museums and the environment: …such as the renovation of Mystic Seaport in Connecticut as a maritime museum, the use of Ironbridge Gorge as a museum to interpret the cradle of the Industrial Revolution in England, and the restoration of the walled medieval cities at Suzdal and Vladimir in Russia. In Australia the heyday of…

anarchism: Anarchism in the Americas: …1892; and Emma Goldman, whose Living My Life gives a picture of radical activity in the United States at the turn of the century. Goldman, who had immigrated to the United States from tsarist Russia in 1885, soon became a preeminent figure in the American anarchist movement. A follower of…

Living Newspaper, theatrical production consisting of dramatizations of current events, social problems, and controversial issues, with appropriate suggestions for improvement. The technique was used for propaganda in the U.S.S.R. from the time of the Revolution in 1917. It became part of the Epic

Frank Borzage: Warner Brothers tenure: In Living on Velvet (1935), George Brent played a guilt-racked pilot who was responsible for the deaths of his family in a plane crash, and Kay Francis played the socialite who helps him face up to his trauma.

chemical compound: Organic compounds: …that can be described as living have a crucial dependence on organic compounds. Foodstuffs—namely, fats, proteins, and carbohydrates—are organic compounds, as are such vital substances as hemoglobin, chlorophyll, enzymes, hormones, and vitamins.

Holly Hunter: …Ordinary (1997), and the romance Living Out Loud (1998).

stagecraft: Renaissance costume: Tableaux vivant and mimes were performed in costumes similar to those worn in the mystery and morality plays. With the gradual decline of church power and the revival of Classical ideas, Renaissance designers found their inspiration in the myths and legends of Greece and Rome.

Ivan Turgenev: Sketches of rural life: …of the paralyzed Lukeriya in “A Living Relic” (1874).

Richard Flanagan: In The Living Sea of Walking Dreams (2020), three siblings argue over medical treatment for their dying mother while the climate crisis worsens. The work, which includes elements of surrealism, explores people’s refusal to acknowledge harsh realities, whether it is impending death or an environmental catastrophe.

standard of living, in social science, the aspirations of an individual or group for goods and services. Alternatively, the term is applied specifically to a measure of the consumption of goods and services by an individual or group, sometimes called “level of living” (what is) as opposed to

lithops, (genus Lithops), genus of about 40 species of small succulent plants of the carpetweed family (Aizoaceae), native to southern Africa. The plants are generally found in rocky arid regions of southern Angola, Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa, and it is believed that their small rocklike

the Local Church: …to California, where he established Living Stream Ministry, the publishing arm of the movement, to facilitate his own writing and teaching activity and through which he offered guidance to the movement’s otherwise autonomous congregations. The movement, commonly known as the Local Church, a name derived from Nee’s teaching of one…

The Living Theatre, theatrical repertory company founded in New York City in 1947 by Julian Beck and Judith Malina. It is known for its innovative production of experimental drama, often on radical themes, and for its confrontations with tradition, authority, and sometimes audiences. The group

chemical compound: Organic compounds: …that can be described as living have a crucial dependence on organic compounds. Foodstuffs—namely, fats, proteins, and carbohydrates—are organic compounds, as are such vital substances as hemoglobin, chlorophyll, enzymes, hormones, and vitamins.

trust company: …companies is concerned chiefly with living trusts and testamentary trusts. Any person during his lifetime may convey property in trust to a trust company with instructions as to the disposal of the income from the property and eventually of the property itself. Such living trusts are used especially by the…

living will, document in which an individual specifies medical measures to be taken or withheld in the event that one becomes disabled. Advances in medical technology now allow the body to be kept alive in circumstances that would normally result in death (e.g., inability to eat, breathe, or

Neil Young: Later work and causes: …Reagan, whereas in 2006, on Living with War, he voiced his angry opposition to the Iraq War and conservative Pres. George W. Bush’s handling of it. The album was performed on a tour with Crosby, Stills and Nash that was captured in the film Déjà Vu (2008; directed by Young…

cost of living, monetary cost of maintaining a particular standard of living, usually measured by calculating the average cost of a number of specific goods and services required by a particular group. The goods and services used as indexes may be the minimum necessary to preserve health or may be

Annie Dillard: When her first novel, The Living, appeared in 1992, reviewers found in its depictions of the logging culture of the turn-of-the-20th-century Pacific Northwest the same visionary realism that distinguished the author’s nonfiction. The Annie Dillard Reader was published in 1994 and Mornings Like This: Found Poems arrived in 1995.…

living-rock cactus, (genus Ariocarpus), genus of eight species of cacti (family Cactaceae), especially Ariocarpus fissuratus. The plants are native to Texas and Mexico and live on limestone-rich soil. Ariocarpus species contain sufficient alkaloids, principally hordenine, to make them mildly

Henry Livings was a British working-class playwright whose farces convey serious truths. His plays, which resemble parables, exhibit both a dazzling comic flair and an unexpected force and profundity that is heightened by his use of colloquial language. After attending the University of Liverpool,

Livingston, county, western New York state, U.S. The terrain rises from a lowland region in the north to rolling hills in the south. The Genesee River flows through the western part of the county. Lakes include Conesus and Hemlock. Among the parklands is Letchworth State Park, where the Genesee has

Livingston, “new town,” West Lothian council area, southeastern Scotland, on the Glasgow-Edinburgh motorway (superhighway). Livingston lies mainly within the historic county of West Lothian, but the part of the town south of the River Almond belongs to the historic county of Midlothian. Livingston

Livingston, city, seat (1887) of Park county, south-central Montana, U.S. It lies about 20 miles (32 km) southeast of Bozeman near the Yellowstone River. The city is surrounded by divisions of the Gallatin National Forest. Originally called Clark’s City, it was founded in 1882 as a division

Edward Livingston was an American lawyer, legislator, and statesman, who codified criminal law and procedure. Livingston was admitted to the bar in 1785 and began to practice law in New York City. He was a Republican representative in Congress from 1795 to 1801, when he was appointed U.S. district

Henry Brockholst Livingston was an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court from 1806 to 1823. Livingston joined the Continental Army at the age of 19 and saw action with Benedict Arnold and as an aide to General Philip John Schuyler and General Arthur St. Clair before accompanying his

cyclotron: physicists Ernest Orlando Lawrence and M. Stanley Livingston. A cyclotron consists of two hollow semicircular electrodes, called dees, mounted back to back, separated by a narrow gap, in an evacuated chamber between the poles of a magnet. An electric field, alternating in polarity, is created in the gap by a…

Bob Marley: Formation of the Wailers, role of Rastafari, and international fame: …name Winston Hubert MacIntosh) and Bunny Wailer (original name Neville O’Reilly Livingston). The trio, which named itself the Wailers (because, as Marley stated, “We started out crying”), received vocal coaching by noted singer Joe Higgs. Later they were joined by vocalist Junior Braithwaite and backup singers Beverly Kelso and Cherry…

Robert Livingston was an early American landowner, politician, and merchant who founded the prominent Livingston family of New York state and laid the basis of his family’s material fortune. Livingston was the son of a Scottish Presbyterian minister who emigrated to Rotterdam in Holland in 1663.

Robert R. Livingston was an early American leader who served as a delegate to the Continental Congress, first secretary of the Department of Foreign Affairs (1781–83), and minister to France (1801–04). Born into a wealthy and influential New York family, Livingston was admitted to the bar in 1770.

William Livingston was the first Revolutionary governor of New Jersey. A graduate of Yale, Livingston was admitted to the New York bar in 1748 and served briefly in the New York legislature (1759–60). His chief political influence was exerted through pamphlets and newspaper articles, first in the

pain: Theories of pain: American neurologist William K. Livingston, who worked with patients with industrial injuries in the 1930s, diagrammed a feedback loop within the nervous system, which he described as a “vicious circle.” Livingston theorized that severe lasting pain induces functional and organic changes in the nervous system, thereby producing…

Livingstone, town, extreme southern Zambia. It lies on the northern bank of the Zambezi River at the Zimbabwe border, just north of Victoria Falls. The first European settlement in the area was upriver at the Old Drift Ferry Station in the 1890s; the town’s present site was occupied in 1905 with

Livingstone Falls, series of 32 rapids and cataracts on the Congo River, extending for about 220 miles (354 km) between Kinshasa and Matadi in Congo (Kinshasa) and partially along the border with Congo (Brazzaville). The total drop of the falls is about 850 feet (260 m), despite only minor rapids

East African lakes: Physiography: …on the Tanzanian side the Livingstone Mountains rise precipitously from the lake surface. In the northwest, however, there is a well-defined alluvial plain. From the east come the waters of the Ruhuhu River, and numerous streams flow across the Malawi Plateau to the western shore. In the shallower southern part…

Livingstone: The Livingstone Museum has a collection of ethnological, archaeological, and historical exhibits, including those related to the 19th-century Scottish explorer-missionary David Livingstone, for whom the town is named. Pop. (2000) 97,488; (2010 prelim.) 136,897.

eland: The common, or Cape, eland (T. oryx) ranges over the woodlands, plains, mountains, and subdeserts of eastern and southern Africa. The eland is the largest of all antelopes.

David Livingstone was a Scottish missionary and explorer who exercised a formative influence on Western attitudes toward Africa. Livingstone grew up in a distinctively Scottish family environment of personal piety, poverty, hard work, zeal for education, and a sense of mission. His father’s family

South African literature: In English: …War II, but it was Douglas Livingstone who became the leading English-language poet of the latter 20th century. He emerged in the 1960s with his powerful descriptions of African landscapes and animals, but his poetry subsequently broadened in scope to touch upon various aspects of modern society. Also of considerable…

Ken Livingstone is a British politician, who made constitutional history on May 4, 2000, when he was elected mayor of London—the first time that British voters had directly elected a candidate to an executive office at any level of government. He served as mayor until May 2008. Livingstone was born

Ken Livingstone is a British politician, who made constitutional history on May 4, 2000, when he was elected mayor of London—the first time that British voters had directly elected a candidate to an executive office at any level of government. He served as mayor until May 2008. Livingstone was born

Sir Richard Winn Livingstone was a classical scholar and university administrator who championed the classical liberal arts curriculum. Livingstone’s parents were an Anglican vicar and the daughter of an Irish baron, and he was educated at Winchester and then New College at Oxford, where he took

palm: Evolution: Sabal, Serenoa, Livistona, Trachycarpus, and Oncosperma, existed in the United States, Canada, India, Europe, and China, many in places where palms do not occur today. These genera include members of groups considered primitive and specialized within the family and appear to represent an early burst of radiation…

palm: Ecology: …up to 350 years, and Livistona eastonii in Australia has lived to be as old as 720 years.

Lucius Livius Andronicus was the founder of Roman epic poetry and drama. He was a Greek slave, freed by a member of the Livian family; he may have been captured as a boy when Tarentum surrendered to Rome in 272 bc. A freedman, he earned his living teaching Latin and Greek in Rome. His main work,

Jan Lievens was a versatile painter and printmaker whose style derived from both the Dutch and Flemish schools of Baroque art. A contemporary of Rembrandt, he was a pupil of Joris van Schooten (1616–18) and of Rembrandt’s teacher Pieter Lastman in Amsterdam (1618–20). After residing in Leiden for a

Livy was, with Sallust and Tacitus, one of the three great Roman historians. His history of Rome became a classic in his own lifetime and exercised a profound influence on the style and philosophy of historical writing down to the 18th century. Little is known about Livy’s life and nothing about

Livonia, lands on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, north of Lithuania; the name was originally applied by Germans in the 12th century to the area inhabited by the Livs, a Finno-Ugric people whose settlements centred on the mouths of the Western Dvina and Gauja rivers, but eventually it was used

Tzipi Livni is an Israeli politician who served as minister of justice (2006–07 and 2013–14) and minister of foreign affairs (2006–09), among other cabinet posts. She was also the leader of the Kadima party (2008–12) and founder and leader of the Hatnua party (2012– ). Although she entered politics

Tzipi Livni is an Israeli politician who served as minister of justice (2006–07 and 2013–14) and minister of foreign affairs (2006–09), among other cabinet posts. She was also the leader of the Kadima party (2008–12) and founder and leader of the Hatnua party (2012– ). Although she entered politics

Livonia, lands on the eastern coast of the Baltic Sea, north of Lithuania; the name was originally applied by Germans in the 12th century to the area inhabited by the Livs, a Finno-Ugric people whose settlements centred on the mouths of the Western Dvina and Gauja rivers, but eventually it was used

Livonia, city, Wayne county, southeastern Michigan, U.S. It is a western suburb of Detroit. It originated in 1834 as Livonia township (named for Livonia, N.Y.) and was primarily a farming community for more than a century. After World War II it rapidly experienced planned industrial and residential

Baltic states: The early modern age: The internal strength of the Confederation of Livonia diminished during the 16th century, though trade with Russia by the Hanseatic League (an organization of German merchants) brought prosperity to the towns. The Reformation rendered the ecclesiastical states anachronisms. The Confederation was unable to withstand the onslaughts of the Russian tsar…