Humphry Repton was an English landscape designer who became the undisputed successor to Lancelot Brown as improver of grounds to the landed gentry of England. Of a well-to-do family, he was intended for a mercantile career but, failing in that, retired to the country, where he learned something of

Cisalpine Republic, republic formed by General Napoleon Bonaparte in June 1797 in conquered territories centred in the Po River valley of northern Italy. Its territory first embraced Lombardy, then extended to Emilia, Modena, and Bologna (collectively known for some months previously as the

Cispadane Republic, state formed in December 1796 by General Napoleon Bonaparte out of the merger of the duchies of Reggio and Modena and the legate states of Bologna and Ferrara. By the Treaty of Tolentino (Feb. 19, 1797), the pope also ceded Romagna to the republic. Deputies from the constituent

San Marino, small, landlocked republic situated on the slopes of Mount Titano, on the Adriatic side of central Italy between the Emilia-Romagna and Marche regions and surrounded on all sides by the republic of Italy. It is the smallest independent state in Europe after Vatican City and Monaco and,

Italy, country of south-central Europe, occupying a peninsula that juts deep into the Mediterranean Sea. Italy comprises some of the most varied and scenic landscapes on Earth and is often described as a country shaped like a boot. At its broad top stand the Alps, which are among the world’s most

Ligurian Republic, republic created by Napoleon Bonaparte on June 15, 1797, organizing the conquered city of Genoa and its environs. The government was modeled on that of the Directory in France, and the republic was tied to France by alliance. In 1803 it became also a military district, closely

Roman Republic, republic established in February 1798 by French troops occupying Rome and its environs. The pope was forced into exile, and the new republic was set up under an executive of seven consuls. In November 1798 Ferdinand IV of Naples sent an army that recaptured Rome, but the French

Italy: The republic of Salò (the Italian Social Republic) and the German occupation: …as ruler of the “Italian Social Republic,” a last-ditch puppet Fascist regime based in Salò on Lake Garda. The republic tried to induct those born in 1923, 1924, and 1925 into its army, but only 40 percent of young men responded. Many others deserted soon after the call-up. In…

Italy: Media and publishing: are Corriere della Sera, La Repubblica, La Stampa, and Il Giorno. Local and regional papers are particularly vital in Italy, underlining once again the strength of regional identity in Italian culture. Among the newspapers with the largest circulation are the sports titles La Gazzetta dello Sport and Corriere dello…

Rome: The fountains of Rome: …the Piazza Esedra (now the Piazza della Repubblica) by Pope Pius IX in 1870, just 10 days before the troops of united Italy broke into the city, it was probably the last public work dedicated by a pope in his role of temporal magistrate of the city. In 1901 the…

Malta, island country located in the central Mediterranean Sea. A small but strategically important group of islands, the archipelago has through its long and turbulent history played a vital role in the struggles of a succession of powers for domination of the Mediterranean and in the interplay

republic, form of government in which a state is ruled by representatives of the citizen body. Modern republics are founded on the idea that sovereignty rests with the people, though who is included and excluded from the category of the people has varied across history. Because citizens do not

Northwest Airlines, Inc.: In 1986 Northwest purchased Republic Airlines, Inc., thereby acquiring routes to Mexico and the Caribbean.

P-47: Army Air Forces (USAAF) by Republic Aviation, it was the largest single-engined piston fighter ever produced.

William Holabird: The Republic Building (Chicago, begun 1905), one of their best 20th-century buildings, was demolished in 1961.

Portugal: Daily life and social customs: …soldier-poet Luís de Camões; and Republic Day (October 5), which celebrates the overthrow of the monarchy and the establishment of the republic in 1910.

Republic Day, in India, national holiday celebrated annually to commemorate the adoption of the constitution of India on January 26, 1950. It differs from Independence Day, which annually commemorates the end of British rule on August 15, 1947, and which stemmed from the Indian Independence Act of

military aircraft: Mach 2: Also outstanding was the Republic F-105 Thunderchief, one of the largest single-engined fighters ever built. Designed to carry a nuclear bomb internally as a low-altitude penetrator and therefore exceptionally fast at low altitudes, the F-105, with heavy loads of conventional bombs under the wings, carried out the brunt of U.S.…

Brazilian literature: Resistance literature during military rule, 1964–85: …A república dos sonhos (1984; The Republic of Dreams). Fernando Gabeira’s O que é isso, companheiro? (1980; “What’s This, Pal?”) and Alfredo Sirkis’s Os carbonários (1980; “The Carbonari”), both testimonies by political exiles, also became best sellers. In 1978 a political opening-up (abertura) paved the way for the redemocratization that…

Ireland: The Republic of Ireland: Costello introduced the Republic of Ireland Act, which repealed the External Relations Act of 1936 and ended the fiction of Commonwealth membership. The act took effect in April 1949, and the British government retaliated with legislation recognizing the new status of Ireland but guaranteeing the constitutional status of…

Inchon landing: …driving before it the demoralized Republic of Korea Army (ROKA) and poorly prepared and understrength units of the U.S. 24th Division that had been hastily sent over from the Eighth Army in Japan. Not until the first weeks of August was the United Nations Command (UNC), as MacArthur’s theater forces…

Carol Shields: The Republic of Love (1992) brings two somewhat unlikely individuals together. Written in a pseudo-biographical manner, The Stone Diaries (1993) is a portrait of an ordinary woman whose life spans most of the 20th century. The novel contains quotations from letters and newspapers as well…

Mali, landlocked country of western Africa, mostly in the Saharan and Sahelian regions. Mali is largely flat and arid. The Niger River flows through its interior, functioning as the main trading and transport artery in the country. Sections of the river flood periodically, providing much-needed

Mauritius, island country in the Indian Ocean, located off the eastern coast of Africa. Physiographically, it is part of the Mascarene Islands. The capital is Port Louis. Mauritius lies about 500 miles (800 km) east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean. Its outlying territories are Rodrigues Island,

Palau, country in the western Pacific Ocean. It consists of some 340 coral and volcanic islands perched on the Kyushu-Palau Ridge. The Palau (also spelled Belau or Pelew) archipelago lies in the southwest corner of Micronesia, with Guam 830 miles (1,330 km) to the northeast, New Guinea 400 miles

Poland, country of central Europe. Poland is located at a geographic crossroads that links the forested lands of northwestern Europe and the sea lanes of the Atlantic Ocean to the fertile plains of the Eurasian frontier. Now bounded by seven nations, Poland has waxed and waned over the centuries,

San Marino, small, landlocked republic situated on the slopes of Mount Titano, on the Adriatic side of central Italy between the Emilia-Romagna and Marche regions and surrounded on all sides by the republic of Italy. It is the smallest independent state in Europe after Vatican City and Monaco and,

Senegal, country in western Africa. Located at the westernmost point of the continent and served by multiple air and maritime travel routes, Senegal is known as the “Gateway to Africa.” The country lies at an ecological boundary where semiarid grassland, oceanfront, and tropical rainforest

Seychelles, island republic in the western Indian Ocean, comprising about 115 islands, with lush tropical vegetation, beautiful beaches, and a wide variety of marine life. Situated between latitudes 4° and 11° S and longitudes 46° and 56° E, the major islands of Seychelles are located about 1,000

South Africa: Constitutional framework: The Republic of South Africa Constitution Act of 1961 transformed the country from a dominion within the British Commonwealth into an independent republic.

Suriname, country located on the northern coast of South America. Suriname is one of the smallest countries in South America, yet its population is one of the most ethnically diverse in the region. Its economy is dependent on its extensive supply of natural resources, most notably bauxite, of which

The Gambia, country in western Africa situated on the Atlantic coast and surrounded by the neighbouring country of Senegal. It occupies a long narrow strip of land that surrounds the Gambia River. The land is flat and is dominated by the river, which is navigable throughout the length of the

Marshall Islands, country in the central Pacific Ocean. It consists of some of the easternmost islands of Micronesia. The Marshalls are composed of more than 1,200 islands and islets in two parallel chains of coral atolls—the Ratak, or Sunrise, to the east and the Ralik, or Sunset, to the west. The

Laredo: …have flown, is now the Republic of the Rio Grande Museum.

Sudan, country located in northeastern Africa. The name Sudan derives from the Arabic expression bilād al-sūdān (“land of the blacks”), by which medieval Arab geographers referred to the settled African countries that began at the southern edge of the Sahara. For more than a century, Sudan—first as

Mo Yan: …most satisfied with Jiuguo (1992; The Republic of Wine). The novel Fengru feitun (1995; Big Breasts and Wide Hips) caused some controversy, both for its sexual content and for its failure to depict class struggle according to the Chinese Communist Party line. Mo was forced by the PLA to write…

Zambia, landlocked country in south-central Africa. It is situated on a high plateau and takes its name from the Zambezi River, which drains all but a small northern part of the country. Large parts of Zambia are thinly populated. Much of population is concentrated in the country’s most developed

Zimbabwe, landlocked country of southern Africa. It shares a 125-mile (200-kilometre) border on the south with the Republic of South Africa and is bounded on the southwest and west by Botswana, on the north by Zambia, and on the northeast and east by Mozambique. The capital is Harare (formerly

Bucharest: Republic Square—with the palace hall and the historical Crețulescu Church (1722)—is one of the most beautiful squares of the city. It is linked to Revolution Square (formerly Palace Square), which is surrounded by an imposing group of administrative, political, and cultural buildings including the Romanian…

Cyrus S. Eaton: …and philanthropist, founder of the Republic Steel Corporation (1930).

James Cruze: … (1938)—were programmatic features made for Republic, which was considered a mere picture mill among film studios, illustrating how far his once-lofty stature had slipped.

Alaa al-Aswany: …2018 novel Jumhūriyyah kaʾan (The Republic, As If), whose setting is the 2011 protests, was published in Beirut and banned in Egypt for its criticism of state institutions. A lawsuit was filed against him in March 2019 for a column he wrote for Deutsche Welle that criticized Pres. Abdel…

Portugal: Constitutional framework: The parliament comprises the unicameral Assembly of the Republic, which has 230 deputies. Its duties include debating and voting upon legislation, authorizing the government to raise revenues, and approving the laws passed by the legislatures of the autonomous regions. The parliament may also dismiss the government by rejecting a vote…

Berlin: The city layout: Nearby once stood the Palace of the Republic (Palast der Republik). The building, which opened in 1976 as the new seat of the East German parliament (Volkskammer), occupied the site of the former palace of the Prussian and German kings and kaisers. In 2003 the decision was made to…

Montevideo: The University of the Republic was founded in 1849. The Uruguay Workers’ University (1878) provides vocational training through industrial and night schools.

Venezuela, country located at the northern end of South America. It occupies a roughly triangular area that is larger than the combined areas of France and Germany. Venezuela is bounded by the Caribbean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean to the north, Guyana to the east, Brazil to the south, and Colombia

Sao Tome and Principe, island country of Central Africa, located on the Equator in the Gulf of Guinea. It consists of two main islands—São Tomé and Príncipe—and several rocky islets, including Rôlas, south of São Tomé island, and Caroço, Pedras, and Tinhosas, south of Príncipe. São Tomé, which is

Brazilian literature: Resistance literature during military rule, 1964–85: …A república dos sonhos (1984; The Republic of Dreams). Fernando Gabeira’s O que é isso, companheiro? (1980; “What’s This, Pal?”) and Alfredo Sirkis’s Os carbonários (1980; “The Carbonari”), both testimonies by political exiles, also became best sellers. In 1978 a political opening-up (abertura) paved the way for the redemocratization that…

Diego de Saavedra Fajardo: Saavedra is also remembered for La república literaria (1655; “The Republic of Letters”), a witty survey of Spanish literature, and for his Corona gótica (1646; “The Gothic Kingdom”), a history of Spain under the Goths.

Uruguay, country located on the southeastern coast of South America. The second smallest country on the continent, Uruguay has long been overshadowed politically and economically by the adjacent republics of Brazil and Argentina, with both of which it has many cultural and historical similarities.

Portugal, country lying along the Atlantic coast of the Iberian Peninsula in southwestern Europe. Once continental Europe’s greatest power, Portugal shares commonalities—geographic and cultural—with the countries of both northern Europe and the Mediterranean. Its cold, rocky northern coast and

Montevideo: The University of the Republic was founded in 1849. The Uruguay Workers’ University (1878) provides vocational training through industrial and night schools.

France: France after de Gaulle: …of a business party, the Independent Republicans (Républicains Indépendants). Giscard won over Chaban-Delmas in the first round and narrowly defeated Mitterrand in the runoff.

20th-century international relations: The civil war in Spain: But the Republicans, or loyalists, a Popular Front composed of liberals, Socialists, Trotskyites, Stalinists, and anarchists, took up arms to defend the Republic elsewhere and sought outside aid against what they styled as the latest Fascist threat. Spain became a battleground for the ideologies wrestling for mastery…

Poland: Augustus III: …by the Czartoryskis, and the Republicans, with the Potockis and Radziwiłłs at their head.

Manuel Azaña: …organize a liberal republican party, Republican Action (Acción Republicana), in opposition to the dictatorship of General Miguel Primo de Rivera. He was one of the signatories of the Pact of San Sebastián (August 1930), an alliance of republicans, socialists, and the Catalan left that called for the abdication of King…

Rufus Wilmot Griswold: His best work is The Republican Court, or American Society in the Days of Washington (1855). His books were noted for personality sketches of contemporary writers.

Leonard Dupee White: … (1951), The Jacksonians (1954), and The Republican Era, 1869–1901 (1958). The last of these was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for history in 1959. In addition to his teaching and writing, he served on numerous administrative boards and commissions. He was one of the founders of the Public Administration Review, serving…

Côte d’Ivoire: Fall of Gbagbo: …the rebels—now calling themselves the Republican Forces of Ivory Coast (Forces Républicaines de Côte d’Ivoire; FRCI)—controlled more than two-thirds of the country, including the designated capital of Yamoussoukro. Battle for the de facto capital of Abidjan, where Gbagbo was ensconced, took place over the course of the next couple of…

Iraq War: The 2003 conflict: …central Iraq units of the Republican Guard—a heavily armed paramilitary group connected with the ruling party—were deployed to defend the capital of Baghdad. As U.S. Army and Marine forces advanced northwestward up the Tigris-Euphrates river valley, they bypassed many populated areas where Fedayeen resistance was strongest and were slowed only…

France: France after de Gaulle: …of a business party, the Independent Republicans (Républicains Indépendants). Giscard won over Chaban-Delmas in the first round and narrowly defeated Mitterrand in the runoff.

Republican National Committee (RNC), American political organization that oversees the activities of the Republican Party, including organizing the party’s national convention, developing its political platform, coordinating campaign strategies, and fundraising. It is headquartered in Washington,

Republican National Convention, quadrennial meeting of the U.S. Republican Party to select its presidential and vice presidential nominees for the presidential election. Formed in 1854 in opposition to the extension of slavery into the Kansas and Nebraska territories, the Republican Party held its

Portugal: Security: …Segurança Pública; PSP) and the Republican National Guard (Guarda Nacional Republicana; GNR) are under the control of the Ministry of Internal Administration. The GNR includes the road police and has jurisdiction over rural areas. The PSP patrols urban areas and directs city traffic. The Fiscal Guard (Guarda Fiscal), which is…

Republican Party, French political party formed in May 1977 when the former National Foundation of Independent Republicans (Fédération Nationale des Républicains Indépendents)—founded in 1966 by Valéry Giscard d’Estaing—was merged with other small groups. It is conservative in domestic social and

Fianna Fáil, the dominant political party in the Republic of Ireland since the 1930s. Constituted in May 1926, Fianna Fáil comprised opponents of the Anglo-Irish Treaty (1921) that had brought the Irish Free State into existence. The party was established and led by Eamon de Valera, who had been

Pakistan: Political decline and bureaucratic ascendancy: …Frontier Province, Mirza formed the Republican Party and made Khan Sahib the chief minister of the new province of West Pakistan. The Republican Party was assembled to represent the landed interests in West Pakistan, the basic source of all political power. Never an organized body, the Republican Party lacked an…

The Republicans, German ultranationalist political party, founded in West Germany in 1983. Although they reject the label, many observers regard the party as neo-fascist. The Republicans’ founders were dissident members of the Christian Social Union who had protested that party’s role in arranging

Republican Party, in the United States, one of the two major political parties, the other being the Democratic Party. During the 19th century the Republican Party stood against the extension of slavery to the country’s new territories and, ultimately, for slavery’s complete abolition. During the

Republican Party, in U.S. history, political party formed from the nucleus of the Anti-Federalists and the country’s first opposition party. Formed in 1792 by supporters of Thomas Jefferson in opposition to the Federalist Party of Alexander Hamilton, the party developed into the

Spain: The Revolution of 1868 and the Republic of 1873: The Republican Party was neither strong nor united. When the Republican leaders, on legal scruples, refused to declare for a federal republic, the provincial federal extremists revolted.

Bolivia: The Republican Party: The abrasive quality of the strong-willed Montes and the disintegration of the ruling Liberal Party finally permitted the Republicans to stage a successful coup d’état in 1920 and become the ruling party. Upon achieving political power, however, the new party immediately split into…

Puerto Rico: Political developments: federal government; the island’s Republican Party favoured statehood, whereas the Union Party worked for greater autonomy. The Nationalist Party arose in the 1920s and argued for immediate independence. Meanwhile, the pro-U.S. Socialist Party, led by the highly respected labour leader Santiago Iglesias, remained focused on the plight of Puerto…

Turkey: Political repressions: …Peasants’ Party to form the Republican Peasants’ Nation Party. Laws passed in 1954 provided for heavy fines on journalists thought to have damaged the prestige of the state or the law; several prominent journalists were prosecuted under this law, which was made more severe in 1956, while other laws substantially…

Turkey: Government: …own party, which became the Republican People’s Party (Cumhuriyet Halk Partisi; CHP), dominated all assemblies until 1950; in this period the assemblies included a heavy preponderance of urban professional men and of officials with a university education. With an outlook different from that of the illiterate Turkish peasants, they carried…

Mauricio Macri: …foundation for the successor party, Republican Proposal (PRO). Under his leadership, over the next dozen years, PRO was transformed into Argentina’s first new nationally viable and competitive political party in more than 60 years.

Republican River, river formed by the confluence of the North Fork of the Republican River and the Arikaree River near Haigler, Neb., U.S. It flows eastward through Swanson Lake (behind Trenton Dam) past the towns of McCook, Red Cloud, and Superior and then turns southeastward through Kansas to

Cyprus: Political process: … (Toplumcu Kurtuluș Partisi), and the Republican Turkish Party (Cumhuriyetc̦i Türk Partisi).

Richard Carlile: …and, changing its name to The Republican, he edited 12 volumes in prison. Curiously, the government made no attempt to stop his editorial work in jail, though his wife, sister, and other persons who operated his printing shop were harassed by police and at times imprisoned.

presidency of the United States of America: The presidency in the 19th century: By completing the transition to republicanism, he humanized the presidency and made it a symbol not of the nation but of the people. He talked persuasively about the virtue of limiting government—his first inaugural address was a masterpiece on the subject—and he made gestures in that direction. He slashed the…

The Republicans, German ultranationalist political party, founded in West Germany in 1983. Although they reject the label, many observers regard the party as neo-fascist. The Republicans’ founders were dissident members of the Christian Social Union who had protested that party’s role in arranging

Suriname, country located on the northern coast of South America. Suriname is one of the smallest countries in South America, yet its population is one of the most ethnically diverse in the region. Its economy is dependent on its extensive supply of natural resources, most notably bauxite, of which

Indonesia, country located off the coast of mainland Southeast Asia in the Indian and Pacific oceans. The most populous country in Southeast Asia and the fourth most populous in the world, Indonesia is situated on an archipelago that lies across the Equator and spans a distance equivalent to

Austria, largely mountainous landlocked country of south-central Europe. Together with Switzerland, it forms what has been characterized as the neutral core of Europe, notwithstanding Austria’s full membership since 1995 in the supranational European Union (EU). A great part of Austria’s prominence

Berlin: The city layout: Nearby once stood the Palace of the Republic (Palast der Republik). The building, which opened in 1976 as the new seat of the East German parliament (Volkskammer), occupied the site of the former palace of the Prussian and German kings and kaisers. In 2003 the decision was made to…

Albania, country in southern Europe, located in the western part of the Balkan Peninsula on the Strait of Otranto, the southern entrance to the Adriatic Sea. The capital city is Tirana (Tiranë). Albanians refer to themselves as shqiptarë—often taken to mean “sons of eagles,” though it may well

Croatia, country located in the northwestern part of the Balkan Peninsula. It is a small yet highly geographically diverse crescent-shaped country. Its capital is Zagreb, located in the north. The present-day republic is composed of the historically Croatian regions of Croatia-Slavonia (located in

North Macedonia, landlocked country of the south-central Balkans. It is bordered to the north by Kosovo and Serbia, to the east by Bulgaria, to the south by Greece, and to the west by Albania. The capital is Skopje. The Republic of North Macedonia is located in the northern part of the area

Bosnia and Herzegovina: Postwar Bosnia and Herzegovina: … and the Republika Srpska (Bosnian Serb Republic), were largely autonomous, each having its own assembly.

The Republicans, German ultranationalist political party, founded in West Germany in 1983. Although they reject the label, many observers regard the party as neo-fascist. The Republicans’ founders were dissident members of the Christian Social Union who had protested that party’s role in arranging

Schutzbund, (German: Republican Defense League), paramilitary socialist organization active in Austria between World War I and 1934. Compared with its chief right-wing opponent force, the Heimwehr, the Schutzbund was tightly organized, having been created in 1923 from the workers’ guards by the

Batavian Republic, republic of the Netherlands, established after it was conquered by the French during the campaign of 1794–95. Formalized in a constitution of 1798, it possessed a centralized government patterned after that of the Directory in France and was bound to France by alliance. In March

Central African Republic, landlocked country located in the centre of Africa. The area that is now the Central African Republic has been settled for at least 8,000 years. The earliest inhabitants were the probable ancestors of today’s Aka (Pygmy) peoples, who live in the western and southern

Cisalpine Republic, republic formed by General Napoleon Bonaparte in June 1797 in conquered territories centred in the Po River valley of northern Italy. Its territory first embraced Lombardy, then extended to Emilia, Modena, and Bologna (collectively known for some months previously as the

Cispadane Republic, state formed in December 1796 by General Napoleon Bonaparte out of the merger of the duchies of Reggio and Modena and the legate states of Bologna and Ferrara. By the Treaty of Tolentino (Feb. 19, 1797), the pope also ceded Romagna to the republic. Deputies from the constituent

Jacques Bainville: … he published his first book, La République de Bismarck, ou Origines allemandes de la Troisième République (1905; “The Republic of Bismarck: German Origins of the Third Republic”), in which he emphasized the German chancellor Otto von Bismarck’s support of French Republicanism.

Mali, landlocked country of western Africa, mostly in the Saharan and Sahelian regions. Mali is largely flat and arid. The Niger River flows through its interior, functioning as the main trading and transport artery in the country. Sections of the river flood periodically, providing much-needed

Senegal, country in western Africa. Located at the westernmost point of the continent and served by multiple air and maritime travel routes, Senegal is known as the “Gateway to Africa.” The country lies at an ecological boundary where semiarid grassland, oceanfront, and tropical rainforest

Comoros, an independent state comprising three of the Comoro Islands in the Indian Ocean, off the coast of East Africa. A fourth island of the Comorian archipelago, Mayotte, is claimed by the country of Comoros but administered by France. The volcanic islands of the Comorian archipelago have been

France, country of northwestern Europe. Historically and culturally among the most important nations in the Western world, France has also played a highly significant role in international affairs, with former colonies in every corner of the globe. Bounded by the Atlantic Ocean and the