Traverse City, city, seat (1851) of Grand Traverse county, northwestern Lower Peninsula of Michigan, U.S. It is located at the southern end of Grand Traverse Bay (West Arm), an embayment of Lake Michigan. Settled in 1847 and named for the bay, it developed from a timber town into one of the

petit jury, a group chosen from the citizens of a district to try a question of fact. Distinct from the grand jury, which formulates accusations, the petit jury tests the accuracy of such accusations by standards of proof. Generally, the petit jury’s function is to deliberate questions of fact,

Mouloud Mammeri: …destruction of the Aztecs, and La Traversée (1982; “The Crossing”), a novel that centred on an alienated journalist’s attempt to return to his Berber roots.

surveying: Basic control surveys: …of horizontal control is the traverse, which consists of a series of marked stations connected by measured courses and the measured angles between them. When such a series of distances and angles returns to its point of beginning or begins and ends at stations of superior (more accurate) control, it…

travertine, dense, banded rock composed of calcite (calcium carbonate, CaCO3). Formed by the evaporation of river and spring waters, it is a variety of limestone that has a light colour and takes a good polish; it is often used for walls and interior decorations in public buildings. Travertine

coleopteran: Annotated classification: Family Lutrochidae (travertine beetles) 1 genus (Lutrochus); found near streams; distribution limited to New World. Family Psephenidae (water-penny beetles) Larvae flat, almost circular; a few species, mostly in India, North America. Family

Tom Stoppard: …Inspector Hound (1968), Jumpers (1972), Travesties (1974; Tony Award for best play), Every Good Boy Deserves Favour (1978), Night and Day (1978), Undiscovered Country (1980, adapted from a play by Arthur Schnitzler), and On the Razzle (1981, adapted from a play by Johann Nestroy). The Tony-winning The

travesty, in literature, the treatment of a noble and dignified subject in an inappropriately trivial manner. Travesty is a crude form of burlesque in which the original subject matter is changed little but is transformed into something ridiculous through incongruous language and style. An early

John Hawkes: …& the Traveler (1974), and Travesty (1976) explore the concepts of marriage and freedom to unsettling effect. The Passion Artist (1979) and Virginie: Her Two Lives (1982) are tales of sexual obsession. Hawkes’s later works include Adventures in the Alaskan Skin Trade (1985), whose narrator is a middle-aged woman; Whistlejacket…

Mario Vargas Llosa: …de la niña mala (2006; The Bad Girl) in Paris during this period, its plot a reflection of Vargas Llosa’s lifelong appreciation of Gustave Flaubert’s Madame Bovary (1857).

Merle Travis was an American country singer, songwriter, and guitarist who popularized the complex guitar-picking technique now known as the Travis style, or Travis picking, whereby the index finger plays the melody while the thumb plays rhythmic accompaniment. Travis was also a popular singer and

Merle Travis was an American country singer, songwriter, and guitarist who popularized the complex guitar-picking technique now known as the Travis style, or Travis picking, whereby the index finger plays the melody while the thumb plays rhythmic accompaniment. Travis was also a popular singer and

Randy Travis is an American country music singer-songwriter and actor known musically as being a new traditionalist, or neo-traditionalist, preferring to explore classic country over the urban cowboy sound that was popular when he gained fame in the mid-1980s. Throughout his career, he won numerous

Walter Travis was the first U.S. golfer to win the British Amateur championship (1904) and is considered one of the greatest putters in golf history. He also won the U.S. Amateur title three times (1900, 1901, 1903). Travis, who was a resident of the New York City area, first began to play

Alamo: …by Colonels James Bowie and William B. Travis and included the renowned frontiersman Davy Crockett. At the beginning of the siege, Travis dispatched “To the People of Texas & all Americans in the world” an impassioned letter requesting support (see primary source document: “Victory or Death” message from the Alamo).…

Plains Indian: Plains life before the horse: Dogs drew the travois, a vehicle consisting of two poles in the shape of a V, with the open end of the V dragging on the ground; burdens were placed on a platform that bridged the two poles. Because of the limitations inherent in using only dogs and…

John Travolta is an American actor and singer who was a cultural icon of the 1970s, especially known for roles in the TV series Welcome Back, Kotter (1975–79) and the blockbuster film Saturday Night Fever (1977). He faded from the limelight during the next decade but reemerged as one of Hollywood’s

John Travolta is an American actor and singer who was a cultural icon of the 1970s, especially known for roles in the TV series Welcome Back, Kotter (1975–79) and the blockbuster film Saturday Night Fever (1977). He faded from the limelight during the next decade but reemerged as one of Hollywood’s

Lina Wertmüller: …destino nell’azzurro mare d’agosto (1974; Swept Away), a witty comedy in which a poor sailor establishes his dominance over a haughty rich woman while they are marooned on a deserted island, and Pasqualino settebellezze (1975; Seven Beauties), a film about an Italian dandy who must betray all moral values while…

net: Seine nets, trawls, dredges, and long lines are all varieties of surrounding nets. Of these, the most widely used are the seine and the trawl. Beach, or drag, seines can be hauled onto a beach with their contents; others, called purse seines, are operated from boats in…

trawler, fishing vessel that uses a trawl, a conical net that snares fish by being dragged through the water or along the bottom. Trawlers vary according to the method of towing the net. On side trawlers, the trawl is set and hauled over the side with power winches or manually by a large crew.

commercial fishing: …gear, such as gillnets or bottom trawls, results in substantial bycatch (the incidental catch of non-target species); some estimates state that bycatch may amount to as much as 40 percent of the global catch. The sustainable management of fisheries is key to both the health of aquatic ecosystems and the…

baking: Ovens: …at the ends, or the tray oven, with a rigid baking platform carried on chain belts. Other types include the peel oven, having a fixed hearth of stone or brick on which the loaves are placed with a wooden paddle or peel; the reel oven, with shelves rotating on a…

Veda: …and Sama—were known as the trayi-vidya (“threefold knowledge”). A fourth collection of hymns, magic spells, and incantations is known as the Atharvaveda (“Knowledge of the Fire Priest”), which includes various local traditions and remains partly outside the Vedic sacrifice.

Bill Traylor was an African American self-taught artist who, over the course of three years starting at age 85, created some 1,200 drawings and paintings of people and animals. Scant information exists on Traylor’s early life, but it is well documented that Traylor was born into slavery, the son of

Bill Traylor was an African American self-taught artist who, over the course of three years starting at age 85, created some 1,200 drawings and paintings of people and animals. Scant information exists on Traylor’s early life, but it is well documented that Traylor was born into slavery, the son of

Randy Travis is an American country music singer-songwriter and actor known musically as being a new traditionalist, or neo-traditionalist, preferring to explore classic country over the urban cowboy sound that was popular when he gained fame in the mid-1980s. Throughout his career, he won numerous

trazodone, drug used to treat depression and to induce sedation in persons with certain anxiety disorders and sleep disorders. Trazodone works by causing an increase in levels of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that helps maintain mental balance. Trazodone is taken orally, typically starting at a low

Truth and Reconciliation Commission, South Africa (TRC), courtlike body established by the new South African government in 1995 to help heal the country and bring about a reconciliation of its people by uncovering the truth about human rights violations that had occurred during the period of

depression: Treatments for depression: …with depression are affected by treatment-resistant depression (TRD), meaning that they are refractory to existing therapies. For those individuals, scientists have been investigating alternative therapeutic approaches, including deep brain stimulation (DBS) and gene therapy. In DBS, experimental research has focused on the implantation of an electrode in a region of…

Green Day: May 4, 1972, Berkeley), and Tré Cool (byname of Frank Edwin Wright III, b. December 9, 1972, Willits, California). Other members have included Al Sobrante (byname of John Kiffmeyer).

Italian literature: The veristi and other narrative writers: …Eyes”) and Tre croci (1920; Three Crosses). Tozzi, however, belongs psychologically and stylistically to the 20th century.

Italian literature: Social commitment and the new realism: …novel about the working classes, Tre operai (1934; “Three Workmen”); Cesare Pavese produced Paesi tuoi (1941; “Your Lands”; Eng. trans. The Harvesters); and Elio Vittorini wrote Conversazione in Sicilia (1941; Conversation in Sicily); all definitely promised a new literary development. From these

Riccardo Bacchelli: Of Bacchelli’s later historical novels, I tre schiavi di Giulio Cesare (1958; “The Three Slaves of Julius Caesar”) is outstanding. Among his critical works are Confessioni letterarie (1932; “Literary Declarations”) and a later work on two literary figures he greatly admired, Leopardi e Manzoni (1960). Bacchelli’s early short stories have…

mandibulofacial dysostosis, a rare, genetic disorder, inherited as an autosomal-dominant trait and characterized by some or all of the following: underdevelopment of the cheek and jaw bones, widely separated eyes, malformation of the lower eyelid and lack of eyelashes, malformation of the ear

René Magritte: …of his most famous pieces, The Treachery of Images (1929), in which a detailed representation of a pipe is combined with the cursive statement: Ceci n’est pas une pipe (“This is not a pipe”). The painting questioned the authority of both images and words.

molasses, syrup remaining after sugar is crystallized out of cane or beet juice. Molasses syrup is separated from sugar crystals by means of centrifuging. Separation from the sugar crystals occurs repeatedly during the manufacturing process, resulting in several different grades of molasses; that

Alan Garner: In Treacle Walker (2021), a boy meets a mysterious rag-and-bone man. The Stone Book Quartet—comprising The Stone Book (1976), Granny Reardun (1977), Tom Fobble’s Day (1977), and The Aimer Gate (1978)—is a series of fictionalized episodes from the lives of Garner’s ancestors.

tire: Tire materials: A tire’s treads must be especially resistant to abrasion. A tread compound might have no natural rubber at all but rather 65 parts styrene-butadiene rubber (for hardness and abrasion resistance), 35 parts butadiene rubber, and as much as 65 parts carbon black.

river: River terraces: …distinct topographic components: (1) a tread, which is the flat surface of the former floodplain, and (2) a scarp, which is the steep slope that connects the tread to any surface standing lower in the valley. Terraces are commonly used to reconstruct the history of a river valley. Because the…

staircase: …a step is called its tread and the vertical front its riser; steps are placed between strings that are inclined to the angle of the staircase; strings are supported by newel posts that also support the handrail, forming a balustrade.

bicycle: Treadles and pedals: powered velocipedes: There is evidence that a small number of two-wheeled machines with rear treadle drives were built in southwestern Scotland during the early 1840s. Kirkpatrick Macmillan, a blacksmith of Dumfriesshire, is most often associated with these. He is said to have…

treadwheel, penal appliance introduced in 1818 by the British engineer Sir William Cubitt (1785–1861) as a means of usefully employing convicts. The device was a wide hollow cylinder, usually composed of wooden steps built around a cylindrical iron frame, and was designed in some cases to handle as

the Drifters: …name Drifters, to which manager George Treadwell held the copyright, after he dismissed the original contingent. The principal members of the first incarnation were Clyde McPhatter (b. November 15, 1932, Durham, North Carolina, U.S.—d. June 13, 1972, New York, New York), Billy Pinckney (also spelled Billy Pinkney; b. August 15,…

treadwheel, penal appliance introduced in 1818 by the British engineer Sir William Cubitt (1785–1861) as a means of usefully employing convicts. The device was a wide hollow cylinder, usually composed of wooden steps built around a cylindrical iron frame, and was designed in some cases to handle as

treason, the crime of betraying a nation or a sovereign by acts considered dangerous to security. In English law, treason includes the levying of war against the government and the giving of aid and comfort to the monarch’s enemies. It is also treason to violate the monarch’s consort, eldest

Stony Point: The Treason (Joshua Hett Smith) House (now demolished) was where General Benedict Arnold and Major John André met (September 21, 1780) to arrange for the betrayal of West Point to the British; the site at West Haverstraw is now occupied by Helen Hayes (orthopedic) Hospital.

Julien Benda: …La Trahison des clercs (1927; The Treason of the Intellectuals; also published as The Great Betrayal), Benda denounced as moral traitors those who betray truth and justice for racial and political considerations. The evolution of his thought can be traced in two autobiographical works: La Jeunesse d’un clerc (1937; “The…

muckraker: David Graham Phillips’s series “The Treason of the Senate” (Cosmopolitan, 1906), which inspired Pres. Roosevelt’s speech in 1906, was influential in leading to the passage of the Seventeenth Amendment to the Constitution, which provided for popular senatorial elections. Muckraking as a movement largely disappeared between 1910 and 1912.

Fatima Meer: During the Treason Trial (1956–58) of leaders of the Congress Alliance (a coalition of antiapartheid groups led by the African National Congress [ANC]), Meer organized efforts to aid the imprisoned activists (who included her husband) and their families. Following the Sharpeville massacre of 1960, in which police…

United Kingdom: The consolidation of the Reformation: …Supremacy (March 1534) and the Act of Treason (December 1534) were designed to root out and liquidate the dissent. The former was a loyalty test requiring subjects to take an oath swearing to accept not only the matrimonial results of the break with Rome but also the principles on which…

United Kingdom: Law and order: …gave way, producing in the Statute of Treason a narrow definition of great treason that made it impossible to threaten common criminals with the harsh penalties which followed conviction for treason. The concern of the Commons had been that in cases of treason goods and land forfeited by those found…

Byron Haskin: Haskin’s version of Treasure Island (1950), derived from Robert Louis Stevenson’s novel, starred Robert Newton and Bobby Driscoll; it was Walt Disney Productions’s first live-action production. Tarzan’s Peril (1951), with Lex Barker as the jungle king, was enhanced by Dorothy Dandridge

Victor Fleming: The 1930s: …turned to family fare with Treasure Island, a solid adaptation of the oft-filmed Robert Louis Stevensonnovel; it starred Wallace Beery as Long John Silver and Jackie Cooper as Jim Hawkins. Reckless (1935), however, was one of Fleming’s rare misfires at MGM. The musical featured

San Francisco: City site: … and Yerba Buena and man-made Treasure Island, created for a world’s fair in 1939 and later turned into a naval base (1941–93). Alcatraz (Spanish: “Pelican”) was from 1934 to 1963 the most notorious maximum-security, “escape-proof” prison in the United States. In 1969, after the decaying cell blocks had been given…

Treasure Island, classic adventure novel by Robert Louis Stevenson, serialized in the magazine Young Folks from October 1881 to January 1882 under the title The Sea-Cook; or, Treasure Island and published in book form in 1883. Although not the first book about pirates, Treasure Island is considered

The Treasure of the Sierra Madre, American adventure film, released in 1948, that was written and directed by John Huston. It has been recognized as one of the first Hollywood movies for which most of the shoot took place on location outside the United States. Set in Mexico in the 1920s, the film

Montana, constituent state of the United States of America. Only three states—Alaska, Texas, and California—have an area larger than Montana’s, and only two states—Alaska and Wyoming—have a lower population density. Montana borders the Canadian provinces of British Columbia, Alberta, and

treasure trove, in law, coin, bullion, gold, or silver articles, found hidden in the earth, for which no owner can be discovered. In most of feudal Europe, where the prince was looked on as the ultimate owner of all lands, his claim to the treasure trove became, according to the founder of

G.W. Pabst: …film was Der Schatz (1923; The Treasure), about the passions aroused during a search for hidden treasure. His first successful film as a director was Die freudlose Gasse (1925; The Joyless Street), which became internationally famous as a grimly authentic portrayal of life in inflation-ridden postwar Vienna. His second successful…

Robert Benchley: His monologue “The Treasurer’s Report,” initially delivered as a skit in an amateur revue for the Algonquin group in 1922, was the basis for one of the first all-talking cinema short subjects. He subsequently acted in and sometimes wrote motion-picture short subjects—The Sex Life of a Polyp…

Damien Hirst: …his own solo exhibition, “Treasures from the Wreck of the Unbelievable,” in two venues. The monumental installation featured sculptures and other objects presented as the remains from a fictional 2,000-year-old shipwreck off the coast of Africa.

Penelope Lively: …other novels for adults included Treasures of Time (1979), which won the British National Book Award; Judgement Day (1980); Moon Tiger (1987; Booker Prize), based partly on her recollections of Egypt; Passing On (1989); City of the Mind (1991); and Cleopatra’s Sister (1993). Heat Wave (1996) is the story of…

government budget: The United Kingdom: …preparation of the budget, the Treasury appears to have virtually complete authority over the government departments on matters of detail. Major issues are settled in Cabinet discussions, the records of which are not available. The British system thus vests extensive controls in the Treasury bureaucracy.

Iranian art and architecture: Architecture: The character of the Treasury is indicated by security precautions in its planning. In this building the columns were of wood, heavily plastered and painted in bright colours. Elsewhere, columns are fluted in the Greek manner, while the more elaborate capitals and bases have a floral treatment that, like…

government economic policy: Monetary policy: In time of unemployment the central bank may stimulate private investment expenditure, and possibly also household spending on consumer goods, by reducing interest rates and taking measures to increase the supply of credit, liquid assets, and money. The customary tools for doing this are open market operations, the discount rate…

treasury bill, short-term U.S. government security with maturity ranging from 4 weeks to 52 weeks. Treasury bills are usually sold at auction on a discount basis with a yield equal to the difference between the purchase price and the maturity value. In contrast to longer-term government securities,

treasury note, government security, usually marketable, with maturity ranging from one to five years. Because their relatively shorter maturities make them a more liquid investment than long-term securities, notes have the advantage of lower interest costs. The maturities and terms of notes can be

Treasury Relief Art Project (TRAP), smallest of the federal visual arts projects conceived under the New Deal to help Depression-stricken American artists in the 1930s. It was directed by the painter Olin Dows and designed to embellish existing federal buildings that lacked construction

Treasury Section of Painting and Sculpture, most important of the U.S. Department of the Treasury’s three visual arts programs conceived during the Great Depression of the 1930s by the Franklin D. Roosevelt administration and designed to embellish new federal buildings with murals and sculpture. It

U.S. Department of the Treasury, executive division of the U.S. federal government responsible for fiscal policy. Established in 1789, it advises the president on fiscal matters, serves as fiscal agent for the government, performs certain law-enforcement activities, manufactures currency and

treated gem, genuine gem material whose colour has been artificially enhanced or produced to increase the value of the stone; staining, heat treatment, and irradiation are among the treatments used. Relatively porous material may be stained or dyed to change its colour. Agate may be stained a

treated gem, genuine gem material whose colour has been artificially enhanced or produced to increase the value of the stone; staining, heat treatment, and irradiation are among the treatments used. Relatively porous material may be stained or dyed to change its colour. Agate may be stained a

Encyclopædia Britannica: First edition: …Britannica consisted of including “treatises” on the arts (i.e., practical arts) and sciences in the same alphabetical series as short articles on technical terms and other subjects, with plentiful cross references from the one type of entry to the other. It was thus intended to satisfy two kinds of…

Ralph Cudworth: …ethics, Cudworth’s outstanding work is A Treatise Concerning Eternal and Immutable Morality, directed against Puritan Calvinism, against the divine omnipotence discussed by René Descartes, and against the Hobbesian reduction of morality to civil obedience. Cudworth stressed the natural good or evil inherent in an event or an act in contrast…

Jonathan Edwards: Pastorate at Northampton: …in New England (1742), and A Treatise Concerning Religious Affections (1746).

George Berkeley: Period of his major works: ” In his A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge, Part I (1710), he brought all objects of sense, including tangibles, within the mind; he rejected material substance, material causes, and abstract general ideas; he affirmed spiritual substance; and he answered many objections to his theory and…

Colin Maclaurin: His two-volume Treatise of Fluxions (1742), a defense of the Newtonian method, was written in reply to criticisms by Bishop George Berkeley of England that Newton’s calculus was based on faulty reasoning. Apart from providing a geometric framework for Newton’s method of fluxions, the treatise is notable…

Émile Haug: His Traité de Geologie, 2 vol. (1907–11; “Treatise of Geology”), contains his ideas about geosynclines.

David Hume: Early life and works: …old Anjou, studying and writing A Treatise of Human Nature. The Treatise was Hume’s attempt to formulate a full-fledged philosophical system. It is divided into three books: Book I, “Of the Understanding,” discusses, in order, the origin of ideas; the ideas of space and time; knowledge and probability, including the…

lacquerwork: Europe: John Stalker and George Parker’s Treatise of Japanning and Varnishing (London, 1688) was the first text with pattern illustrations. The English term japanning was inspired by the superiority of Japanese lacquer, which Stalker found “…in fineness of Black, and neatness of draught…more beautiful, more rich, or Majestick” than the lacquer…

Lorenzo Valla: His Declamatio (Treatise of Lorenzo Valla on the Donation of Constantine), written in 1440, attacked the crude Latin of its anonymous author and from that observation argued that the document could not possibly have dated from the time of Constantine. As King Alfonso was at war…

Karl, baron von Rokitansky: (1842–46; Treatise of Pathological Anatomy, 1849–52), represented an elevation of the discipline to the status of an established science.

figure skating: Pioneers of the sport: A Treatise on Skating (1772) by Robert Jones, an Englishman, is apparently the first account of figure skating. The sport had a cramped and formal style until American Jackson Haines introduced his free and expressive techniques based on dance movement in the mid-1860s. Although popular…

Sir William Petty: …main contribution to political economy, Treatise of Taxes and Contributions (1662), examined the role of the state in the economy and touched on the labour theory of value.

Henry Briggs: …subject of exploration later with A Treatise of the Northwest Passage to the South Sea, Through the Continent of Virginia and by Fretum Hudson (1622). In addition, Briggs’s advice was avidly sought on surveying, shipbuilding, mining, and drainage.

John Wallis: …Wallis published, in 1685, his Treatise on Algebra, an important study of equations that he applied to the properties of conoids, which are shaped almost like a cone. Moreover, in this work he anticipated the concept of complex numbers (e.g., a + b − 1, in which a and b…

John Milton: Works on history and theology: …and published in 1825 as A Treatise on Christian Doctrine. The comprehensive and systematic theology presented in this work reflects Milton’s close engagement with Scripture, from which he draws numerous proof texts in order to buttress his concepts of the Godhead and of moral theology, among others. Like his historical…

William Chambers: His books, notably A Treatise on Civil Architecture (1759), had widespread influence.

Francis Maitland Balfour: …animal morphology and there published A Treatise on Comparative Embryology (1880–81), which laid the foundations of modern embryology. Such was his fame that he was invited to succeed the eminent biologists George Rolleston at the University of Oxford and Sir Charles Wyville Thomson at Edinburgh, but he refused both offers…

Léon Duguit: …his most important works is Traité de droit Constitutionnel, 5 vol. (1921–25; “Treatise on Constitutional Law”).

Catharine Beecher: Her major work, A Treatise on Domestic Economy, first published in 1841, went through 15 editions and was the first American work to deal with all facets of domestic life. The Treatise helped to standardize domestic practices and reinforce domestic values, arguing that a woman’s proper role was…

Epicureanism: Epicureanism and egoism in modern philosophy: …the Syntagma philosophiae Epicuri (Treatise on Epicurean Philosophy), was issued posthumously at The Hague 10 years later. At the same time, in England, Thomas Hobbes, a friend of Gassendi, took up again the theory of pleasure and interpreted it in a dynamic sense, which was therefore closer to the…

Zhang Zhongjing: …han za bing lun (Treatise on Febrile and Other Diseases), which greatly influenced the practice of traditional Chinese medicine. The original work was later edited and divided into two books, Shang han lun (Treatise on Febrile Diseases) and Jin gui yao lue (Jingui Collection of Prescriptions). Today, Zhang’s work…

Henri, baron de Jomini: , 1805; Treatise on Grand Military Operations, 1865). Rejoining the army in 1804 as a volunteer, he was appointed staff colonel in 1805 by Napoleon, who had read his book. Jomini served under Marshal Michel Ney at the battles of Ulm (1805), Jena (1806), and Eylau (1806)…

Alexander Bryan Johnson: In his Treatise on Language; or, The Relation Which Words Bear to Things (1836), Johnson asserted that language is “subordinate” to nature because there are not enough words to describe limitless experiences. To reconcile this inconsistency, he devised an operational method of studying the function of language,…

Christiaan Huygens: …Traité de la Lumière (Treatise on Light), already largely completed by 1678, was also published in 1690. In it he again showed his need for ultimate mechanical explanations in his discussion of the nature of light. But his beautiful explanations of reflection and refraction—far superior to those of Newton—were…

Adolphe Quetelet: …essai de physique sociale (1835; A Treatise on Man and the Development of His Faculties), he presented his conception of the homme moyen (“average man”) as the central value about which measurements of a human trait are grouped according to the normal distribution. His studies of the numerical constancy of…

Daoism: Literary developments: The Treatise on Maoshan (Maoshanzhi; 1329) is among the most monumental. It includes lives of the saints and patriarchs, notes on topography and history, and a valuable selection from 1,000 years of literary testimony and inscriptions on the mountain and its Daoism. The new Daoist…

Marie-François-Xavier Bichat: This view he developed in Traité des membranes (1800; “Treatise on Membranes”). Although Bichat did not use the microscope, he distinguished 21 kinds of tissues that enter into different combinations in forming the organs of the body. His Recherches physiologiques sur la vie et la mort (1800; “Physiological Researches on…