Decline of the Mongol Empire

The Mongol Empire was the largest contiguous land empire that ever existed. The Mongols’ success at subduing and controlling people of so many different regions, languages, and religions meant that running the empire was always extraordinarily challenging. In China the Mongols could maintain their rule better than elsewhere because the strong Chinese tradition of centralized state power supplied a stable framework of governmental organization. But ultimately, the empire began to fragment as the central government in China weakened.

After Möngke’s death in 1259, his brother Kublai was proclaimed great khan of the vast Mongol Empire. During the next 20 years he completed the conquest and unification of China, which had been divided under different rulers for a few hundred years. Kublai moved the Mongol capital from Karakorum in Mongolia to what is now Beijing, China. Although most historians consider Kublai an abled ruler, his empire was so large that even Kublai had trouble effectively governing all of it. Kublai’s major achievement was to reconcile China to rule by a foreign people, the Mongols. His failures were a series of costly wars with other Asian countries, including two disastrous attempts to invade Japan. These wars brought little benefit to China. Kublai’s extravagant administration also provoked resentment among the Chinese and laid the foundation for serious uprisings against Mongol rule in later years.

After Kublai’s death in 1294, the Mongol Empire fragmented. Many of his successors were inept, and none attained Kublai’s stature. From 1300 on disputes over succession weakened the central government in China, and there were frequent rebellions. The Yuan Dynasty fell in 1368, overthrown by the Chinese rebel leader Zhu Yuanzhang, who established the Ming Dynasty and became known as the Hongwu emperor. The most enduring part of the Mongol Empire proved to be the Golden Horde. It had begun to decline significantly in the mid-14th century, however, after outbreak of the Black Death and the murder of one of its rulers. The Golden Horde finally broke apart into several smaller territories in the 15th century.