Isaac Newton’s Achievements

Newton was the original developer of calculus, an advanced branch of mathematics that deals mostly with rates of change and with problems such as determining areas or volumes within curved lines or surfaces. Another mathematician, Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz of Germany, who was a contemporary of Newton, independently developed the idea of calculus. It is now well established that Newton developed calculus before Leibniz seriously pursued mathematics. However, it was Leibniz’s paper in 1684 that first made calculus a matter of public knowledge. Calculus is now the basic entry point for anyone wishing to study physics, chemistry, biology, economics, or finance.

Newton started his research into optics, or the study of sight and the behavior of light, when he was a university student. Using a prism with light in a series of experiments, he studied the spectrum of light projected onto a wall. His analysis pointed to the existence of individual rays of light that refract at different angles, which results in phenomena such as rainbows. Believing that chromatic aberration, or color distortion, would always be present in glass lenses, he built the first ever reflecting telescope. His improved reflecting telescope and his theory of colors impressed the Royal Society in 1671–72. Newton later published his analysis in the book Opticks. His observations of the fundamental nature of light have been foundational in modern science.

Newton analyzed both planetary motion and universal gravitation. He proposed that planetary orbits are mostly elliptical because of the Sun’s gravitation. In 1684 British astronomer Edmond Halley visited Newton with questions about orbital dynamics. Newton collected his findings for Halley in a tract called De Motu (“On Motion”), which he then started to improve and expand. It grew into Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (The Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy), which is the fundamental work for the whole of modern science. The Principia contains the law of universal gravitation and the three Newtonian laws of motion. The law of universal gravitation states that every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle with a force that is proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between their centers. The first Newtonian law of motion is the principle of inertia, stating a body continues in its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed upon it. The second law states that the change of motion of an object is proportional to the force impressed and is made in the direction of the straight line in which the force is impressed. The third law states that to every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. These principles are the groundwork for all modern understanding of movement and physics.