John Locke’s Important Works

Probably in February 1671 Locke and a group of friends had gathered to consider questions of morality and religion. Locke pointed out that before they could make progress they would need to consider the question “What is the capacity of the human mind for understanding and knowledge?” It was agreed that Locke should prepare a paper on the topic, and it was this paper that became the first draft of his work An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, which he completed while living in Holland in 1689. The work explores the theory of ideas and contains Locke’s argument that certain kinds of knowledge—knowledge of the existence of God, certain moral truths, and the laws of logic and mathematics—are not innate, or automatically imprinted on the human mind. Locke argues that an idea cannot be “in the mind” until one is conscious of it. Since human infants have no conception of God, morals, logic, or mathematical truths, they do not have those thoughts imprinted in their minds. Locke believed that all knowledge, including moral knowledge, is derived from experience. The text also explores the distinction between the “primary” and “secondary” qualities of physical objects, with primary qualities including permanent characteristics such as size and shape and secondary qualities, including how humans experience the objects with their senses. Locke also discusses the idea of personal identity, which he argues is a continuity of consciousness—meaning that one is the same person as in the past if one has memories of those past conscious experiences. The influence of An Essay Concerning Human Understanding was enormous, perhaps as great as that of any other philosophical work apart from those of Plato and Aristotle. The essay’s importance in the English-speaking world of the 18th century can scarcely be overstated. Along with the works of Descartes, it constitutes the foundation of modern Western philosophy.

Locke meant for his work Two Treatises of Government to justify the Glorious Revolution, which brought the Protestant William III and Mary II to the throne following the flight of James II to France. In the first treatise Locke rejects the idea of the divine right of kings. In the second treatise Locke defines political power as a “right” of making laws and enforcing them for “the Publick Good.” Power for Locke never simply means “capacity” but always “morally sanctioned capacity,” and he argues for the need of a government to be recognized by common consent. Also, in the second treatise, Locke outlines a plan for the formation of a civil government consisting of legislative, executive, and judicial bodies and having a division of powers. The legislative body cannot create laws that violate the law of nature regarding life, liberty, and property. Laws must apply to all citizens. If the executive power fails to provide conditions under which people can enjoy their rights under natural law, then the people are entitled to remove that authority, even by force. The significance of Locke’s vision of political society can scarcely be exaggerated. His integration of individualism within the framework of the law of nature and his account of the origins and limits of legitimate government authority inspired the U.S. Declaration of Independence (1776) and the broad outlines of the system of government adopted in the U.S. Constitution. These principles also appear in France’s Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen and other justifications of the French Revolution.

Locke developed some theories on education starting with his time at the Westminster School in London. Locke flourished academically at the prestigious school, but he did not enjoy his time there. As an adult he recalled the uncivil behavior of his classmates and the use of corporal punishment by the authorities. Locke believed that private tutoring was preferable for education, a stance he took in his work Some Thoughts Concerning Education. Some Thoughts Concerning Education grew from a series of letters Locke wrote from Holland to his friend Edward Clarke about Clarke’s son’s education. The letters emphasize the importance of both exercise and study as well as of instilling virtue, wisdom, and good manners. Locke recommended the study of Latin, French, mathematics, geography, history, civil law, philosophy, and natural science. He said that physical recreation was essential. The text remains a standard source in the philosophy of education.

Locke’s family belonged to the Church of England, but they were sympathetic to Puritanism. He also showed his tendency toward religious tolerance when working on The Fundamental Constitutions for the Government of Carolina (1669), which, among other provisions, guaranteed freedom of religion for all except atheists. Locke’s The Reasonableness of Christianity is the most important of his many theological writings. Central to all of them is his belief that every individual can achieve salvation with the aid of the scriptures. Locke was constantly trying to steer a course that would allow individuals to accept the essential doctrines of Christianity while retaining a certain freedom of conscience. According to Locke, all Christians must accept Jesus as the Messiah and live in accordance with Christian teachings. Within this minimum framework, however, differences of worship could and should be tolerated.