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SCALA/Art Resource, New YorkGalileo’s Sidereus Nuncius (The Sidereal Messenger) is published. In the book Galileo describes his discoveries of four moons revolving around the planet Jupiter. These discoveries support the Copernican heliocentric theory, which proposed that Earth and the other planets revolve around the Sun. (For centuries astronomy had been based on Ptolemy’s theory that Earth was the center of the universe and motionless.) The book is one of the scientific texts considered foundational to the Enlightenment.
1687
Isaac Newton publishes his Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). In the landmark work he sets forth his three basic laws of motion and the law of universal gravitation.
1689
John Locke completes a major work in political philosophy, Two Treatises of Government. In this work he defends a doctrine of natural rights and a conception of political authority as limited and conditional on the ruler’s fulfillment of his obligation to serve the public good. A classic formulation of the principles of political liberalism, this work will later influence the American and French revolutions.
1696
The Deistic philosopher John Toland publishes Christianity Not Mysterious. In this work he seeks to show that “there is nothing in the Gospels contrary to reason, nor above it.” Any doctrine that is really above reason, he argues, would be meaningless to humans.
VoltaireVoltaire, a statue of the great French writer created by Jean-Antoine Houdon, is housed in the Hermitage, St. Petersburg, Russia.
Scala/Art Resource, New YorkVoltaire publishes Lettres philosophiques, in which he speaks out against established religious and political systems. The work creates an uproar, and he is forced to flee Paris.
1735
In Systema Naturae (“The System of Nature”) Swedish naturalist Carolus Linnaeus presents a classification of three kingdoms of nature: stones, plants, and animals. Each kingdom is subdivided into classes, orders, genera, species, and varieties. This system is still used in biology, though it has been revised over the years.
1751
Discover the Enlightenment's influence on biologic categorization, encyclopedias, and literatureLearn how the Enlightenment contributed to modern thought by developing systems and methods for categorizing knowledge.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.The first volume of the French Encyclopédie appears. This encyclopedia, created by the philosophes, is one of the principal works of the Enlightenment. Its compilation of available human knowledge reflects an optimism toward scientific and human progress. The encyclopedia will eventually total 35 volumes.
1759
Voltaire publishes his best-known work, the satirical novel Candide, an undisputed masterpiece of the 18th century.
Courtesy of the Musée d'Art et d'Histoire, Geneva; photograph, Jean ArlaudJean-Jacques Rousseau publishes Du Contrat social (The Social Contract) in France. In his work Rousseau challenges the traditional order of society based on binding laws handed down by rulers or the church. He argues instead that laws are binding only if the general will of the people supports them within a type of social contract.
July 4, 1776
Declaration of IndependenceIn a painting by John Trumbull entitled Declaration of Independence, Thomas Jefferson, standing at the table, is shown presenting the Declaration to John Hancock, president of the Continental Congress.
Yale University Art GalleryThe Declaration of Independence is approved by the Continental Congress meeting in Philadelphia. The document announces the separation of 13 North American British colonies from Great Britain. Thomas Jefferson was largely responsible for the writing of the document. It begins with a declaration of individual rights and then lists the alleged acts of tyranny by George III that form the colonies’ justification for seeking independence. The document reflects many Enlightenment ideals. These include government by consent of the governed, unalienable human rights, and the promotion of life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness.
1787
The efforts of the French regime to increase taxes on the privileged classes initiates a crises, which marks the beginning of the French Revolution.
1790
In his essay Sur l’admission des femmes au droits de la cité (On the Admission of Women to the Rights of Citizenship), the marquis de Condorcet argues that the widely shared assumption that the natural rights of men are based on their capacities for reason and moral action logically implies that women possess the very same rights. He is one of the few men during the Enlightenment to advocate that women be granted full equality and citizenship in society.
1791
Thomas Paine publishes The Rights of Man in support of the French Revolution and republicanism.
1793–94
Reign of TerrorLearn about the period of the French Revolution called the Reign of Terror.
Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.During the period of the French Revolution known as the Reign of Terror, harsh measures are taken against those suspected of being enemies of the revolution. A wave of executions takes place in Paris. In the provinces representatives on mission and surveillance committees institute local terrors. At least 300,000 suspects are arrested during the Reign of Terror. About 17,000 are officially executed, and perhaps 10,000 die in prison or without trial.
