Society and the Internet
What began as a largely technical and limited universe of designers and users became one of the most important mediums of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. As the Pew Charitable Trust observed in 2004, it took 46 years to wire 30 percent of the United States for electricity; it took only 7 years for the Internet to reach that same level of connection to American homes. By 2005, 68 percent of American adults and 90 percent of American teenagers had used the Internet. Europe and Asia were at least as well connected as the United States. Nearly half of the citizens of the European Union are online, and even higher rates are found in the Scandinavian countries. There is a wide variance in Asian countries; for example, by 2005 Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Japan had at least half of their populations online, whereas India, Pakistan, and Vietnam had less than 10 percent. South Korea was the world leader in connecting its population to the Internet through high-speed broadband connections.
Such statistics can chart the Internet’s growth, but they offer few insights into the changes wrought as users—individuals, groups, corporations, and governments—have embedded the technology into everyday life. The Internet is now as much a lived experience as a tool for performing particular tasks, offering the possibility of creating an environment or virtual reality in which individuals might work, socially interact with others, and perhaps even live out their lives.
History, community, and communications
Two agendas
The Internet has evolved from the integration of two very different technological agendas—the Cold War networking of the U.S. military and the personal computer (PC) revolution. The first agenda can be dated to 1973, when the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency (DARPA) sought to create a communications network that would support the transfer of large data files between government and government-sponsored academic-research laboratories. The result was the ARPANET, a robust decentralized network that supported a vast array of computer hardware. Initially, ARPANET was the preserve of academics and corporate researchers with access to time-sharing mainframe computer systems. Computers were large and expensive; most computer professionals could not imagine anyone needing, let alone owning, his own “personal” computer. And yet Joseph Licklider, one of the driving forces at DARPA for computer networking, stated that online communication would “change the nature and value of communication even more profoundly than did the printing press and the picture tube.”
The second agenda began to emerge in 1977 with the introduction of the Apple II, the first affordable computer for individuals and small businesses. Created by Apple Computer, Inc. (now Apple Inc.), the Apple II was popular in schools by 1979, but in the corporate market it was stigmatized as a game machine. The task of cracking the business market fell to IBM. In 1981 the IBM PC was released and immediately standardized the PC’s basic hardware and operating system—so much so that first PC-compatible and then simply PC came to mean any personal computer built along the lines of the IBM PC. A major centre of the PC revolution was the San Francisco Bay area, where several major research institutions funded by DARPA—Stanford University, the University of California, Berkeley, and Xerox PARC—provided much of the technical foundation for Silicon Valley. It was no small coincidence that Apple’s two young founders—Steven Jobs and Stephen Wozniak—worked as interns in the Stanford University Artificial Intelligence Laboratory and at the nearby Hewlett-Packard Company. The Bay Area’s counterculture also figured prominently in the PC’s history. Electronic hobbyists saw themselves in open revolt against the “priesthood” of the mainframe computer and worked together in computer-enthusiast groups to spread computing to the masses.
The WELL
Why does this matter? The military played an essential role in shaping the Internet’s architecture, but it was through the counterculture that many of the practices of contemporary online life emerged. A telling example is the early electronic bulletin board system (BBS), such as the WELL (Whole Earth ’Lectronic Link). Established in 1985 by American publisher Stewart Brand, who viewed the BBS as an extension of his Whole Earth Catalog, the WELL was one of the first electronic communities organized around forums dedicated to particular subjects such as parenting and Grateful Dead concerts. The latter were an especially popular topic of online conversation, but it was in the parenting forum where a profound sense of community and belonging initially appeared. For example, when one participant’s child was diagnosed with leukemia, members of the forum went out of their way either to find health resources or to comfort the distressed parents. In this one instance, several features still prevalent in the online world can be seen. First, geography was irrelevant. WELL members in California and New York could bring their knowledge together within the confines of a forum—and could do so collectively, often exceeding the experience available to any local physician or medical centre. This marshaling of shared resources persists to this day as many individuals use the Internet to learn more about their ailments, find others who suffer from the same disease, and learn about drugs, physicians, and alternative therapies.
Another feature that distinguished the WELL forums was the use of moderators who could interrupt and focus discussion while also disciplining users who broke the rather loose rules. “Flame wars” (crass, offensive, or insulting exchanges) were possible, but anyone dissatisfied in one forum was free to organize another. In addition, the WELL was intensely democratic. WELL forums were the original chat rooms—online spaces where individuals possessing similar interests might congregate, converse, and even share their physical locations to facilitate meeting in person. Finally, the WELL served as a template for other online communities dedicated to subjects as diverse as Roman Catholicism, liberal politics, gardening, and automobile modification.
Instant broadcast communication
For the individual, the Internet opened up new communication possibilities. E-mail led to a substantial decline in traditional “snail mail.” Instant messaging (IM), or text messaging, expanded, especially among youth, with the convergence of the Internet and cellular telephone access to the Web. Indeed, IM became a particular problem in classrooms, with students often surreptitiously exchanging notes via wireless communication devices. More than 50 million American adults, including 11 million at work, use IM.
From mailing lists to “buddy lists,” e-mail and IM have been used to create “smart mobs” that converge in the physical world. Examples include protest organizing, spontaneous performance art, and shopping. Obviously, people congregated before the Internet existed, but the change wrought by mass e-mailings was in the speed of assembling such events. In February 1999, for example, activists began planning protests against the November 1999 World Trade Organization (WTO) meetings in Seattle, Washington. Using the Internet, organizers mobilized more than 50,000 individuals from around the world to engage in demonstrations—at times violent—that effectively altered the WTO’s agenda.
More than a decade later, in June 2010 Egyptian computer engineer Wael Ghonim anonymously created a page titled “We Are All Khaled Said” on the social media site Facebook to publicize the death of a 28-year-old Egyptian man beaten to death by police. The page garnered hundreds of thousands of members, becoming an online forum for the discussion of police brutality in Egypt. After a popular uprising in Tunisia in January 2011, Ghonim and several other Internet democracy activists posted messages to their sites calling for similar action in Egypt. Their social media campaign helped spur mass demonstrations that forced Egyptian Pres. Hosni Mubarak from power.
(The convergence of mobs is not without some techno-silliness. “Flash mobs”—groups of strangers who are mobilized on short notice via websites, online discussion groups, or e-mail distribution lists—often take part in bizarre though usually harmless activities in public places, such as engaging in mass free-for-alls around the world on Pillow Fight Day.)
In the wake of catastrophic disasters, citizens have used the Internet to donate to charities in an unprecedented fashion. Others have used the Internet to reunite family members or to match lost pets with their owners. The role of the Internet in responding to disasters, both natural and deliberate, remains the topic of much discussion, as it is unclear whether the Internet actually can function in a disaster area when much of the infrastructure is destroyed. Certainly during the September 11, 2001, attacks, people found it easier to communicate with loved ones in New York City via e-mail than through the overwhelmed telephone network.
Following the earthquake that struck Haiti in January 2010, electronic media emerged as a useful mode for connecting those separated by the quake and for coordinating relief efforts. Survivors who were able to access the Internet—and friends and relatives abroad—took to social networking sites such as Facebook in search of information on those missing in the wake of the catastrophe. Feeds from those sites also assisted aid organizations in constructing maps of the areas affected and in determining where to channel resources. The many Haitians lacking Internet access were able to contribute updates via text messaging on mobile phones.