fuel cell
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fuel cell, any of a class of devices that convert the chemical energy of a fuel directly into electricity by electrochemical reactions. A fuel cell resembles a battery in many respects, but it can supply electrical energy over a much longer period of time. This is because a fuel cell is continuously supplied with fuel and air (or oxygen) from an external source, whereas a battery contains only a limited amount of fuel material and oxidant that are depleted with use. For this reason fuel cells have been used for decades in space probes, satellites, and manned spacecraft. Around the world thousands of stationary fuel cell systems have been installed in utility power plants, hospitals, schools, hotels, and office buildings for both primary and backup power; many waste-treatment plants use fuel cell technology to generate power from the methane gas produced by decomposing garbage. Numerous municipalities in Japan, Europe, and the United States lease fuel cell vehicles for public transportation and for use by service personnel. Personal fuel cell vehicles were first sold in Germany in 2004.
The United States government and several state governments, most notably California, have launched programs to encourage the development and use of hydrogen fuel cells in transportation and other applications. While the technology has proven to be workable, efforts to make it commercially competitive have been less successful because of concern with the explosive power of hydrogen, the relatively low energy density of hydrogen, and the high cost of platinum catalysts used to create an electric current by separating electrons from hydrogen atoms.
Principles of operation
From chemical energy to electrical energy
A fuel cell (actually a group of cells) has essentially the same kinds of components as a battery. As in the latter, each cell of a fuel cell system has a matching pair of electrodes. These are the anode, which supplies electrons, and the cathode, which absorbs electrons. Both electrodes must be immersed in and separated by an electrolyte, which may be a liquid or a solid but which must in either case conduct ions between the electrodes in order to complete the chemistry of the system. A fuel, such as hydrogen, is supplied to the anode, where it is oxidized, producing hydrogen ions and electrons. An oxidizer, such as oxygen, is supplied to the cathode, where the hydrogen ions from the anode absorb electrons from the latter and react with the oxygen to produce water. The difference between the respective energy levels at the electrodes (electromotive force) is the voltage per unit cell. The amount of electric current available to the external circuit depends on the chemical activity and amount of the substances supplied as fuels. The current-producing process continues for as long as there is a supply of reactants, for the electrodes and electrolyte of a fuel cell, unlike those in a regular battery, are designed to remain unchanged by chemical reaction.
A practical fuel cell is necessarily a complex system. It must have features to boost the activity of the fuel, pumps and blowers, fuel-storage containers, and a variety of sophisticated sensors and controls with which to monitor and adjust the operation of the system. The operating capability and lifetime of each of these system design features may limit the performance of the fuel cell.
As in the case of other electrochemical systems, fuel cell operation is dependent on temperature. The chemical activity of the fuels and the value of the activity promoters, or catalysts, are reduced by low temperatures (e.g., 0 °C, or 32 °F). Very high temperatures, on the other hand, improve the activity factors but may reduce the functioning lifetime of the electrodes, blowers, construction materials, and sensors. Each type of fuel cell thus has an operating-temperature design range, and a significant departure from this range is likely to diminish both capacity and lifetime.
A fuel cell, like a battery, is inherently a high-efficiency device. Unlike internal-combustion machines, in which a fuel is burned and gas is expanded to do work, the fuel cell converts chemical energy directly into electrical energy. Because of this fundamental characteristic, fuel cells may convert fuels to useful energy at an efficiency as high as 60 percent, whereas the internal-combustion engine is limited to efficiencies near 40 percent or less. The high efficiency means that much less fuel and a smaller storage container are needed for a fixed energy requirement. For this reason, fuel cells are an attractive power supply for space missions of limited duration and for other situations where fuel is very expensive and difficult to supply. They also emit no noxious gases such as nitrogen dioxide and produce virtually no noise during operation, making them contenders for local municipal power-generation stations.
A fuel cell can be designed to operate reversibly. In other words, a hydrogen-oxygen cell that produces water as a product can be made to regenerate hydrogen and oxygen. Such a regenerative fuel cell entails not only a revision of electrode design but also the introduction of special means for separating the product gases. Eventually, power modules comprising this type of high-efficiency fuel cell, used in conjunction with large arrays of thermal collectors for solar heating or other solar energy systems, may be utilized to keep energy-cycle costs lower in longer-lived equipment. Major automobile companies and electrical-machinery manufacturing companies worldwide have announced their intention to produce or use fuel cells commercially in the next few years.
Designing fuel cell systems
Because a fuel cell produces electricity continuously from fuel, it has many output characteristics similar to those of any other direct-current (DC) generator system. A DC generator system can be operated in either of two ways from a planning viewpoint: (1) fuel may be burned in a heat engine to drive an electric generator, which makes power available and current flow, or (2) fuel may be converted to a form suitable for a fuel cell, which then generates power directly.
A wide range of liquid and solid fuels may be used for a heat-engine system, while hydrogen, reformed natural gas (i.e., methane that has been converted to hydrogen-rich gas), and methanol are the primary fuels available for current fuel cells. If fuels such as natural gas must be altered in composition for a fuel cell, the net efficiency of the fuel cell system is reduced, and much of its efficiency advantage is lost. Such an “indirect” fuel cell system would still display an efficiency advantage as high as 20 percent. Nonetheless, to be competitive with modern thermal generating plants, a fuel cell system must attain a good design balance with low internal electrical losses, corrosion-resistant electrodes, an electrolyte of constant composition, low catalyst costs, and ecologically acceptable fuels.
The first technical challenge that must be overcome in developing practical fuel cells is to design and assemble an electrode that allows the gaseous or liquid fuel to contact a catalyst and an electrolyte at a group of solid sites that do not change very rapidly. Thus, a three-phase reaction situation is typical on an electrode that must also serve as an electrical conductor. Such can be provided by thin sheets that have (1) a waterproof layer usually with polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon), (2) an active layer of a catalyst (e.g., platinum, gold, or a complex organometallic compound on a carbon base), and (3) a conducting layer to carry the current generated in or out of the electrode. If the electrode floods with electrolyte, the operation rate will become very slow at best. If the fuel breaks through to the electrolyte side of the electrode, the electrolyte compartment may become filled with gas or vapour, inviting an explosion should the oxidizing gas also reach the electrolyte compartment or the fuel gas enter the oxidizing gas compartment. In short, to maintain stable operation in a working fuel cell, careful design, construction, and pressure control are essential. Because fuel cells have been used on Apollo lunar flights as well as on all other U.S. orbital manned space missions (e.g., those of Gemini and the space shuttle), it is evident that all three requirements can be met reliably.
Providing a fuel cell support system of pumps, blowers, sensors, and controls for maintaining fuel rates, electric current load, gas and liquid pressures, and fuel cell temperature remains a major engineering design challenge. Significant improvements in the service life of these components under adverse conditions would contribute to the wider use of fuel cells.