The technological dilemma
Whatever the responses to modern technology, there can be no doubt that it presents contemporary society with a number of immediate problems that take the form of a traditional choice of evils, so that it is appropriate to regard them as constituting a “technological dilemma.” This is the dilemma between, on the one hand, the overdependence of life in the advanced industrial countries on technology, and, on the other hand, the threat that technology will destroy the quality of life in modern society and even endanger society itself. Technology thus confronts Western civilization with the need to make a decision, or rather, a series of decisions, about how to use the enormous power available to society constructively rather than destructively. The need to control the development of technology, and so to resolve the dilemma, by regulating its application to creative social objectives, makes it ever more necessary to define these objectives while the problems presented by rapid technological growth can still be solved.
These problems, and the social objectives related to them, may be considered under three broad headings. First is the problem of controlling the application of nuclear technology. Second is the population problem, which is twofold: it seems necessary to find ways of controlling the dramatic rise in the number of human beings and, at the same time, to provide food and care for the people already living on Earth. Third, there is the ecological problem, whereby the products and wastes of technical processes have polluted the environment and disturbed the balance of natural forces of regeneration. When these basic problems have been reviewed, it will be possible, finally, to consider the effect of technology on life in town and countryside, and to determine the sort of judgments about technology and society to which a study of the history of technology leads.
Nuclear technology
The solution to the first problem, that of controlling nuclear technology, is primarily political. At its root is the anarchy of national self-government, for as long as the world remains divided into a multiplicity of nation-states, or even into power blocs, each committed to the defense of its own sovereign power to do what it chooses, nuclear weapons merely replace the older weapons by which such nation-states maintained their independence in the past. The availability of a nuclear armoury has emphasized the weaknesses of a world political system based upon sovereign nation-states. Here, as elsewhere, technology is a tool that can be used creatively or destructively. But the manner of its use depends entirely on human decisions, and in this matter of nuclear self-control the decisions are those of governments. There are other aspects of the problem of nuclear technology, such as the disposal of radioactive waste and the quest to harness the energy released by fusion, but, although these are important issues in their own right, they are subordinate to the problem of the use of nuclear weapons in warfare.
Population explosion
Assuming that the use of nuclear weapons can be averted, world civilization will have to come to grips with the population problem in the next few decades if life is to be tolerable on planet Earth in the 21st century. The problem can be tackled in two ways, both drawing on the resources of modern technology.
In the first place, efforts may be made to limit the rate of population increase. Medical technology, which through new drugs and other techniques has provided a powerful impulse to the increase of population, also offers means of controlling this increase through contraceptive devices and through painless sterilization procedures. Again, technology is a tool that is neutral in respect to moral issues about its own use, but it would be futile to deny that artificial population control is inhibited by powerful moral constraints and taboos. Some reconciliation of these conflicts is essential, however, if stability in world population is to be satisfactorily achieved. Perhaps the experience of China, already responsible for one-quarter of the world’s population, is instructive here: in an attempt to prevent the population growth from exceeding the ability of the country to sustain the existing standards of living, the government imposed a “one-child family” campaign in the 1970s, which is maintained by draconian social controls.
In the second place, even the most optimistic program of population control can hope to achieve only a slight reduction in the rate of increase, so an alternative approach must be made simultaneously in the shape of an effort to increase the world’s production of food. Technology has much to contribute at this point, both in raising the productivity of existing sources of food supply, by improved techniques of agriculture and better types of grain and animal stock, and in creating new sources of food, by making the deserts fertile and by systematically farming the riches of the oceans. There is enough work here to keep engineers and food technologists busy for many generations.
Ecological balance
The third major problem area of modern technological society is that of preserving a healthy environmental balance. Though humans have been damaging the environment for centuries by overcutting trees and farming too intensively and though some protective measures, such as the establishment of national forests and wildlife sanctuaries, were taken decades ago, great increases in population and in the intensity of industrialization are promoting a worldwide ecological crisis. This includes the dangers involved in destruction of the equatorial rainforests, the careless exploitation of minerals by open-mining techniques, and the pollution of the oceans by radioactive waste and of the atmosphere by combustion products. These include oxides of sulfur and nitrogen, which produce acid rain, and carbon dioxide, which may affect the world’s climate through the greenhouse effect. It was the danger of indiscriminate use of pesticides such as DDT after World War II that first alerted opinion in advanced Western countries to the delicate nature of the world’s ecological system, presented in a trenchant polemic by American science writer Rachel Carson in her book Silent Spring (1962); this was followed by a spate of warnings about other possibilities of ecological disaster. The great public concern about pollution in the advanced nations is both overdue and welcome. Once more, however, it needs to be said that the fault for this waste-making abuse of technology lies with man himself rather than with the tools he uses. For all his intelligence, man in communities behaves with a lack of respect for the environment that is both shortsighted and potentially suicidal.
Technological society
Much of the 19th-century optimism about the progress of technology has dispersed, and an increasing awareness of the technological dilemma confronting the world makes it possible to offer a realistic assessment of the role of technology in shaping society today.
Interactions between society and technology
In the first place, it can be clearly recognized that the relationship between technology and society is complex. Any technological stimulus can trigger a variety of social responses, depending on such unpredictable variables as differences between human personalities; similarly, no specific social situation can be relied upon to produce a determinable technological response. Any “theory of invention,” therefore, must remain extremely tentative, and any notion of a “philosophy” of the history of technology must allow for a wide range of possible interpretations. A major lesson of the history of technology, indeed, is that it has no precise predictive value. It is frequently possible to see in retrospect when one particular artifact or process had reached obsolescence while another promised to be a highly successful innovation, but at the time such historical hindsight is not available and the course of events is indeterminable. In short, the complexity of human society is never capable of resolution into a simple identification of causes and effects driving historical development in one direction rather than another, and any attempt to identify technology as an agent of such a process is unacceptable.
The putative autonomy of technology
Secondly, the definition of technology as the systematic study of techniques for making and doing things establishes technology as a social phenomenon and thus as one that cannot possess complete autonomy, unaffected by the society in which it exists. It is necessary to make what may seem to be such an obvious statement because so much autonomy has been ascribed to technology, and the element of despair in interpretations like that of Jacques Ellul is derived from an exaggerated view of the power of technology to determine its own course apart from any form of social control. Of course it must be admitted that once a technological development, such as the transition from sail to steam power in ships or the introduction of electricity for domestic lighting, is firmly established, it is difficult to stop it before the process is complete. The assembly of resources and the arousal of expectations both create a certain technological momentum that tends to prevent the process from being arrested or deflected. Nevertheless, the decisions about whether to go ahead with a project or to abandon it are undeniably human, and it is a mistake to represent technology as a monster or a juggernaut threatening human existence. In itself, technology is neutral and passive: in the phrase of Lynn White, Jr., “Technology opens doors; it does not compel man to enter.” Or, in the words of the traditional adage, it is a poor craftsman who blames his tools, and so, just as it was naive for 19th-century optimists to imagine that technology could bring paradise on Earth, it seems equally simplistic for pessimists today to make technology itself a scapegoat for human shortcomings.
Technology and education
A third theme to emerge from this review of the history of technology is the growing importance of education. In the early millennia of human existence, a craft was acquired in a lengthy and laborious manner by serving with a master who gradually trained the initiate in the arcane mysteries of the skill. Such instruction, set in a matrix of oral tradition and practical experience, was frequently more closely related to religious ritual than to the application of rational scientific principles. Thus, the artisan in ceramics or sword making protected the skill while ensuring that it would be perpetuated. Craft training was institutionalized in Western civilization in the form of apprenticeship, which has survived as a framework for instruction in technical skills. Increasingly, however, instruction in new techniques requires access both to general theoretical knowledge and to realms of practical experience that, on account of their novelty, were not available through traditional apprenticeship. Thus, the requirement for a significant proportion of academic instruction has become an important feature of most aspects of modern technology. This accelerated the convergence between science and technology in the 19th and 20th centuries and created a complex system of educational awards representing the level of accomplishment from simple instruction in schools to advanced research in universities. French and German academies led in the provision of such theoretical instruction, while Britain lagged somewhat in the 19th century, owing to its long and highly successful tradition of apprenticeship in engineering and related skills. But by the 20th century all the advanced industrial countries, including newcomers like Japan, had recognized the crucial role of a theoretical technological education in achieving commercial and industrial competence.
The recognition of the importance of technological education, however, has never been complete in Western civilization, and the continued coexistence of other traditions has caused problems of assimilation and adjustment. The British author C.P. Snow drew attention to one of the most persistent problems in his perceptive essay The Two Cultures (1959), in which he identified the dichotomy between scientists and technologists on the one hand and humanists and artists on the other as one between those who did understand the second law of thermodynamics and those who did not, causing a sharp disjunction of comprehension and sympathy. Arthur Koestler put the same point in another way by observing that the traditionally humanities-educated Westerner is reluctant to admit that a work of art is beyond comprehension but will cheerfully confess to not understanding how a radio or heating system works. Koestler characterized such a modern individual as an “urban barbarian,” isolated from a technological environment that he or she possesses without understanding. Yet the growing prevalence of “black-box” technology, in which only the rarefied expert is able to understand the enormously complex operations that go on inside the electronic equipment, makes it more and more difficult to avoid becoming such a barbarian. The most helpful development would seem to be not so much seeking to master the expertise of others in our increasingly specialized society as encouraging those disciplines that provide bridges between the two cultures, and here there is a valuable role for the history of technology.
The quality of life
A fourth theme, concerned with the quality of life, can be identified in the relationship between technology and society. There can be little doubt that technology has brought a higher standard of living to people in advanced countries, just as it has enabled a rapidly rising population to subsist in the developing countries. It is the prospect of rising living standards that makes the acquisition of technical competence so attractive to these countries. But however desirable the possession of a comfortable sufficiency of material goods, and the possibility of leisure for recreative purposes, the quality of a full life in any human society has other even more important prerequisites, such as the possession of freedom in a law-abiding community and of equality before the law. These are the traditional qualities of democratic societies, and it has to be asked whether technology is an asset or a liability in acquiring them. Certainly, highly illiberal regimes have used technological devices to suppress individual freedom and to secure obedience to the state: the nightmare vision of George Orwell’s Nineteen Eighty-four (1949), with its telescreens and sophisticated torture, has provided literary demonstration of this reality, should one be needed. But the fact that high technological competence requires, as has been shown, a high level of educational achievement by a significant proportion of the community holds out the hope that a society that is well educated will not long endure constraints on individual freedom and initiative that are not self-justifying. In other words, the high degree of correlation between technological success and educational accomplishment suggests a fundamental democratic bias about modern technology. It may take time to become effective, but, given sufficient time without a major political or social disruption and a consequent resurgence of national assertiveness and human selfishness, there are sound reasons for hoping that technology will bring the people of the world into a closer and more creative community.
Such, at least, must be the hope of anybody who takes a long view of the history of technology as one of the most formative and persistently creative themes in the development of humankind from the Paleolithic cave dwellers of antiquity to the dawn of the space age. Above all other perceptions of technology, the threshold of space exploration on which humankind stands provides the most dynamic and hopeful portent of human potentialities. Even while the threat of technological self-destruction remains ominous and the problems of population control and ecological imbalance cry out for satisfactory solutions, man has found a clue of his own future in terms of a quest to explore and colonize the depths of an infinitely fascinating universe. As yet, only a few visionaries have appreciated the richness of this possibility, and their projections are too easily dismissed as nothing more than imaginative science fiction. But in the long run, if there is to be a long run for our uniquely technological but willful species, the future depends upon the ability to acquire such a cosmic perspective, so it is important to recognize this now and to begin the arduous mental and physical preparations accordingly. The words of Arthur C. Clarke, one of the most perceptive of contemporary seers, in his Profiles of the Future (1962), are worth recalling in this context. Thinking ahead to the countless aeons that could stem from the remarkable human achievement summarized in the history of technology, he surmised that the all-knowing beings who may evolve from these humble beginnings may still regard our own era with wistfulness: “But for all that, they may envy us, basking in the bright afterglow of Creation; for we knew the Universe when it was young.”