Refining

Refining of bullion

To remove and recover remaining impurities from lead bullion, either pyrometallurgical or electrolytic refining is used; the choice between the two methods is dictated by the amount of bismuth that must be eliminated from the bullion and by the availability and cost of energy.

The Parkes zinc-desilvering process is the most widely used pyrometallurgical method of refining lead bullion. As in smelting, the lead is first melted and again allowed to cool below the freezing point of copper, which crystallizes and, along with any remaining nickel, cobalt, and zinc, is removed by skimming. The lead mix then passes to a reverberatory “softening” furnace, where the temperature is raised and the molten lead is stirred. A blast of air oxidizes any remaining antimony or arsenic, both of which harden lead (hence the term softening furnace), and these are skimmed off to be recovered later.

After softening, the lead goes to desilvering kettles, where small quantities (less than 1 percent by weight) of zinc are added. With stirring, the molten zinc reacts to form compounds with gold and silver, both of which are more soluble in zinc than in lead. The compounds are lighter than the lead, so that, on cooling to below 370 °C (700 °F) but above the melting point of lead, they form a crust that is removed and taken to a parting plant for recovery of the precious metals. The remaining zinc is then removed by reheating the molten lead to 500 °C (1,100 °F) and creating a vacuum over the surface. The zinc vaporizes, and the vapour is condensed as metal on the cool dome of the vacuum vessel, where it is collected for reuse.

The Harris process of softening and dezincing is designed to remove impurities from desilvered lead by stirring a mixture of molten caustic salts at a temperature of 450–500 °C (840–930 °F) into the molten lead. Metallic impurities react with the chemicals and are collected in the form of their oxides or oxysalts.

Lead bullion containing more than 0.1 percent bismuth can be purified by the Betterton-Kroll process, which usually follows softening, desilvering, and dezincing and involves treatment of the melt with calcium and magnesium. Bismuth unites with these metals to form compounds that rise to the surface. The compounds are skimmed off and treated for recovery of bismuth, a valuable by-product.

The Betterton-Kroll process produces a refined lead with bismuth contents of 0.005 to 0.01 percent. When a refined lead of higher purity is required, or when a lead bullion high in bismuth has to be refined, employment is made of electrolytic refining. This process is costly, but it has the major advantage of separating lead from every impurity except tin in one vessel or one stage, and it does so without emitting lead-bearing fumes or gases. The bullion is cast into large plates, which are hung as anodes in electrolytic tanks where they dissolve. Pure lead is deposited on a thin sheet of lead that serves as the cathode. Impurities left behind can be recovered by many complex operations.

Secondary refining

Secondary lead is lead derived from scrap. Accounting for nearly half of the total output of refined lead, it is a significant factor in the lead market because it is easily melted and refined and rarely becomes contaminated by impurities during service. About 85 percent of secondary lead comes from discarded automobile batteries. The imposition of stringent environmental regulations governing disposal of spent batteries has led to greater recycling efforts that will ensure the growth of this supply.

The recycling of lead from battery scrap involves treating and separating the scrap, reducing and smelting the lead-containing fractions, and refining and alloying the lead bullion into a commercial product. It is usually conducted in reverberatory and blast furnaces at refineries devoted exclusively to handling secondary lead and lead alloys. However, some primary refineries also refine secondary lead; this has led to a growing use of rotary furnaces, which are batch kilns that are rotated during the smelting process.

The bulk of secondary lead alloy recovered from reclaimed batteries and cable sheathing contains small percentages of antimony and other metals. After this antimony-containing secondary lead is refined, it is largely resold to battery manufacturers. Secondary lead containing tin is most often reused in the manufacture of solder, bearing metals, and other lead-tin alloys.

Calcium-lead alloys can also be made from recycled lead. Antimony is removed by oxygen injection, and, after copper and other impurities are removed, the molten lead is cast into blocks, or “pigs,” weighing 50 kilograms (110 pounds) or more. The molten lead may also be pumped into an alloying kettle for production of lead-calcium alloys, with the optional addition of tin or aluminum.

Secondary raw materials are usually processed separately. Sometimes, however, lead residues, sludges, or flue dusts are mixed with oxides from the battery treatment plant and processed together.