Longitude measurements
Almanacs and tables
One of the earliest tabulations of the day-to-day positions of the heavenly bodies was Ephemerides, compiled by the German astronomer Regiomontanus and published by him in Nürnberg in 1474. This work also set forth the principle of determining longitude by the method of lunar distances—that is, the angular displacement of the Moon from other celestial objects. This method, which was destined to become the standard for a time during the 19th century, remained impracticable for more than three centuries because of the inaccuracy of existing lunar tables and because special knowledge and tedious computations were necessary in its use. Meanwhile, during the 16th and 17th centuries, working from translations of Portuguese and Spanish manuals, a flourishing school of instrument makers, chart makers, and teachers grew in England. This group rapidly improved the theory of navigation and compiled tables of increasing accuracy. In 1675 the Royal Observatory was established at Greenwich with the specific object of providing sailors with astronomical data of the required precision. At Paris the Connaissance des temps, the first national almanac, was founded in 1679; it contained tables for the crude determination of longitude from observations of the occultation or eclipses of Jupiter’s moons by Jupiter, first seen by Galileo in 1610. (Galileo himself had advocated the preparation of such tables for this purpose, but the method, though sound in principle, could not be made practical aboard sailing ships.) In 1755 Johann Tobias Mayer, a German astronomer, published remarkably accurate tables of the motion of the Moon. To make them useful to navigators, however, it was necessary to prepare from them an ephemeris of the Moon for every noon and midnight. The English astronomer royal, Nevil Maskelyne, supervised this task; the results were published in the annual Nautical Almanac, which was inaugurated in 1766.
The marine chronometer
Latitude could be determined by measuring the altitude of the Sun at noon or the altitude of any tabulated star when it crossed the local meridian, but the determination of longitude at sea remained a serious problem. By the Middle Ages, astronomers knew that the local time of an eclipse depended on the longitude, and in the 16th century they pointed out the principle of determining longitude by comparing the local time with the reading of a clock that reliably kept the time of a known meridian; because the Earth revolves 360° in 24 hours, or 1/4° every minute, it was possible to ascertain how far east or west a ship had traveled by comparing a marine timekeeper set to keep time with the location of the ship’s point of departure and the ship’s local time as measured by the Sun and stars. But no accurate marine timekeeper was then available. Even on dry land, the best 17th-century clocks were capable of keeping time to an accuracy of only one or two seconds over an interval of several days. Placed on board a ship, clocks became even more unreliable. After being subjected to bouncing waves, corrosive salt sprays, and unpredictable variations in temperature, pressure, and humidity, most shipboard clocks either stopped running or became too unstable to permit accurate navigation. Finally, in 1714, the British Board of Longitude offered a prize of £20,000 to anyone who could discover a method of finding the longitude within 30 miles during a sea voyage. After more than 40 years of disciplined labour, a barely educated British cabinetmaker named John Harrison won the prize by constructing the first practical marine chronometer, an oversized jeweled pocket watch that was nearly twice as accurate as the finest land-based clocks of his day. At last mariners had a way to determine both latitude and longitude. For decades thereafter the precise timing measurements obtained from marine chronometers, coupled with sextant sightings of the celestial bodies, allowed explorers to journey with dependable precision throughout the world.
Michael William RicheyOther aids to navigation
An Egyptian temple decoration dating from about 1600 bc shows a ship on which a member of the crew is measuring the depth of the water with a long pole. The Viking sailor took soundings with a lead weight on a line, hauling in the line and measuring it by the span of his arms. Today depths are still cited in 6-foot (1.8-metre) intervals called fathoms, from the Old Norse word fathmr (“outstretched arms”). The weight was commonly given a hollow bottom filled with tallow to pick up a sample of the seabed for comparison with the composition indicated on the chart. Distance from a cliff could be estimated by timing the echoes of shouts or drumbeats.
To reduce the risk of collision and to allow other ships to follow, a ship under way at night displayed running lights by which sailors on nearby vessels could judge its course and speed. The traditional coloured lights, red to port (left) and green to starboard (right), were augmented on steamships with a white light at the head of the foremast. In foggy weather, gongs, bells, or explosives were used to produce loud warning sounds; eventually these devices were replaced by foghorns. Rules that specified what lights must be shown, what signals must be given, and how ships must navigate in respect of each other were formulated for British mariners in 1862. These rules formed the basis of the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea, which were adopted by nearly all maritime nations after a conference held in 1889. Collision avoidance also was fostered by general acceptance of the recommendation—separate lanes for eastbound and westbound steamers in the heavily traveled North Atlantic—appearing in Sailing Directions (1855), prepared by the U.S. naval officer Matthew F. Maury, who also mapped ocean currents worldwide. The danger of running aground was lessened by a worldwide system of lighthouses, lightships, buoys, bells, and channel markers; the development of these aids to navigation is treated in the article lighthouse.
Edward W. Anderson