The lodestone and the compass card

It is not known where or when it was discovered that the lodestone (a magnetized mineral composed of an iron oxide) aligns itself in a north-south direction, as does a piece of iron that has been magnetized by contact with a lodestone. Neither is it known where or when marine navigators first availed themselves of these discoveries. Plausible records indicate that the Chinese were using the magnetic compass around ad 1100, western Europeans by 1187, Arabs by 1220, and Scandinavians by 1300. The device could have originated in each of these groups, or it could have been passed from one to the others. All of them had been making long voyages, relying on steady winds to guide them and sightings of the Sun or a familiar star to inform them of any change. When the magnetic compass was introduced, it probably was used merely to check the direction of the wind when clouds obscured the sky.

The first mariner’s compass may have consisted of a magnetized needle attached to a wooden splinter or a reed floating on water in a bowl. In a later version the needle was pivoted near its centre on a pin fixed to the bottom of the bowl. By the 13th century a card bearing a painted wind rose was mounted on the needle; the navigator could then simply read his heading from the card. So familiar has this combination become that it is called the compass, although that word originally signified the division of the horizon. The suspension of the compass bowl in gimbals (originally used to keep lamps upright on tossing ships) was first mentioned in 1537.

On early compass cards the north point was emphasized by a broad spearhead and the letter T for tramontana, the name given to the north wind. About 1490 a combination of these evolved into the fleur-de-lis, still almost universally used. The east point, pointing toward the Holy Land, was marked with a cross; the ornament into which this cross developed continued on British compass cards well into the 19th century. The use of 32 points by sailors of northern Europe, usually attributed to Flemish compass makers, is mentioned by Geoffrey Chaucer in his Treatise on the Astrolabe (1391). It also has been said that the navigators of Amalfi, Italy, first expanded the number of compass points to 32, and they may have been the first to attach the card to the needle.

During the 15th century it became apparent that the compass needle did not point true north from all locations but made an angle with the local meridian. This phenomenon was originally called by seamen the northeasting of the needle but is now called the variation or declination. For a time, compass makers in northern countries mounted the needle askew on the card so that the fleur-de-lis indicated true north when the needle pointed to magnetic north. This practice died out about 1700 because it succeeded only for short voyages near the place where the compass was made; it caused confusion and difficulty on longer trips, especially in crossing the Atlantic to the American coast, where the declination was west instead of east as in Europe. The declination in a given location varies over time. For example, in northern Europe in the 16th century the magnetic north pole was east of true geographic north; in subsequent centuries it has drifted to the west.

Despite its acknowledged value, the magnetic compass long remained a fragile, troublesome, and unreliable instrument, subject to mysterious disturbances. The introduction of iron and then steel for hulls and engines in the 19th century caused further concern because it was well known that nearby ironwork would deflect the compass needle. In 1837 the British Admiralty set up a committee to seek rational methods of ensuring the accuracy of compasses installed on iron ships. In 1840 the committee introduced a new design that proved so successful that it was promptly adopted by all the principal navies of the world. Further refinements, aimed at reducing the effects of engine vibration and the shock of gunfire, continued throughout the century.

The liquid magnetic compass

The liquid magnetic compass, now almost universally used, is commonly accompanied by an azimuth instrument for taking bearings of distant objects. The compass consists of a set of steel needles with a compass card, attached to a float, in a bowl of water and alcohol. In modern instruments, the magnetic element is often in the form of a ring magnet, fitted within the float. The card is usually of mica or plastic with photographically printed graduations; metal cards with perforated graduations also are used. Cards are usually graduated clockwise from 0° at north to 359°, with the eight principal points indicated.

A jewel is fitted at the centre of the float to bear on an iridium-tipped pivot attached to the bowl of the compass. The liquid in which the directional system is placed serves two purposes: to reduce the weight on the pivot point, and thereby to minimize friction; and to damp out oscillations from the ship’s motion. The bowl is closed on the top and bottom by glass, the bottom glass permitting illumination from below, and is mounted in gimbals. A flexible diaphragm or bellows attached to the bowl accommodates the change in volume of the liquid caused by temperature changes. The ship’s heading is read with the aid of the lubber’s line, which is oriented toward the forward part of the compass to indicate the direction of the ship’s centre line.

When the ship alters course, liquid at the side of the bowl tends to displace slightly, deflecting the card and causing what is known as swirl error. To minimize swirl error, the card is often made considerably smaller in diameter than the bowl. The directional system is made sufficiently bottom-heavy (pendulous) to counteract the downward pull of the vertical component of the Earth’s magnetic field, which would otherwise cause the system to tilt.

The simplest, and probably earliest, azimuth instrument consists of two sights on opposite sides of the compass bowl connected by a thread. The assembly can be rotated to permit sighting on the distant object. Because it is impossible to sight through the instrument and look at the compass card simultaneously, a prism (mirror) is positioned to reflect an image of the card, which is given a second set of graduations with reversed figures. Modern azimuth instruments embody a number of refinements, but the principle remains unchanged.

The binnacle, formerly called the bittacle, is the receptacle in which the compass is mounted. Originally constructed in the form of a cupboard, it is now usually a cylindrical pedestal with provision for illuminating the compass card, usually from below. It contains various correctors to reduce the deviations of the compass caused by the magnetism of the ship. These usually consist of properly placed magnets, a pair of soft iron spheres (or small strips close to the compass), and a vertical soft iron bar called the Flinders bar, which originated in recommendations made by the English navigator Matthew Flinders.

Binnacles are sometimes constructed so that an image of part of the compass card can be projected or reflected through a tube onto a viewing screen on the deck below. This arrangement can make it unnecessary to provide a second compass for the helmsman and may allow the binnacle to be placed in a position less susceptible to magnetic disturbances.