Kerosene

Though its use as an illuminant has greatly diminished, kerosene is still used extensively throughout the world in cooking and space heating and is the primary fuel for modern jet engines. When burned as a domestic fuel, kerosene must produce a flame free of smoke and odour. Standard laboratory procedures test these properties by burning the oil in special lamps. All kerosene fuels must satisfy minimum flash-point specifications (49 °C, or 120 °F) to limit fire hazards in storage and handling.

Jet fuels must burn cleanly and remain fluid and free from wax particles at the low temperatures experienced in high-altitude flight. The conventional freeze-point specification for commercial jet fuel is −50 °C (−58 °F). The fuel must also be free of any suspended water particles that might cause blockage of the fuel system with ice particles. Special-purpose military jet fuels have even more stringent specifications.

Diesel oils

The principal end use of gas oil is as diesel fuel for powering automobile, truck, bus, and railway engines. In a diesel engine, combustion is induced by the heat of compression of the air in the cylinder under compression. Detonation, which leads to harmful knocking in a gasoline engine, is a necessity for the diesel engine. A good diesel fuel starts to burn at several locations within the cylinder after the fuel is injected. Once the flame has initiated, any more fuel entering the cylinder ignites at once.

Straight-chain hydrocarbons make the best diesel fuels. In order to have a standard reference scale, the oil is matched against blends of cetane (normal hexadecane) and alpha methylnaphthalene, the latter of which gives very poor engine performance. High-quality diesel fuels have cetane ratings of about 50, giving the same combustion characteristics as a 50-50 mixture of the standard fuels. The large, slower engines in ships and stationary power plants can tolerate even heavier diesel oils. The more viscous marine diesel oils are heated to permit easy pumping and to give the correct viscosity at the fuel injectors for good combustion.

Until the early 1990s, standards for diesel fuel quality were not particularly stringent. A minimum cetane number was critical for transportation uses, but sulfur levels of 5,000 parts per million (ppm) were common in most markets. With the advent of more stringent exhaust emission controls, however, diesel fuel qualities came under increased scrutiny. In the European Union and the United States, diesel fuel is now generally restricted to maximum sulfur levels of 10 to 15 ppm, and regulations have restricted aromatic content as well. The limitation of aromatic compounds requires a much more demanding scheme of processing individual gas oil components than was necessary for earlier highway diesel fuels.

Fuel oils

Furnace oil consists largely of residues from crude oil refining. These are blended with other suitable gas oil fractions in order to achieve the viscosity required for convenient handling. As a residue product, fuel oil is the only refined product of significant quantity that commands a market price lower than the cost of crude oil.

Because the sulfur contained in the crude oil is concentrated in the residue material, fuel oil sulfur levels are naturally high. The sulfur level is not critical to the combustion process as long as the flue gases do not impinge on cool surfaces (which could lead to corrosion by the condensation of acidic sulfur trioxide). However, in order to reduce air pollution, most industrialized countries now restrict the sulfur content of fuel oils. Such regulation has led to the construction of residual desulfurization units or cokers in refineries that produce these fuels.

Residual fuels may contain large quantities of heavy metals such as nickel and vanadium; these produce ash upon burning and can foul burner systems. Such contaminants are not easily removed and usually lead to lower market prices for fuel oils with high metal contents.