Solid-waste collection
Collecting and transporting
Proper solid-waste collection is important for the protection of public health, safety, and environmental quality. It is a labour-intensive activity, accounting for approximately three-quarters of the total cost of solid-waste management. Public employees are often assigned to the task, but sometimes it is more economical for private companies to do the work under contract to the municipality or for private collectors to be paid by individual home owners. A driver and one or two loaders serve each collection vehicle. These are typically trucks of the enclosed, compacting type, with capacities up to 30 cubic metres (40 cubic yards). Loading can be done from the front, rear, or side. Compaction reduces the volume of refuse in the truck to less than half of its loose volume.
The task of selecting an optimal collection route is a complex problem, especially for large and densely populated cities. An optimal route is one that results in the most efficient use of labour and equipment, and selecting such a route requires the application of computer analyses that account for all the many design variables in a large and complex network. Variables include frequency of collection, haulage distance, type of service, and climate. Collection of refuse in rural areas can present a special problem, since the population densities are low, leading to high unit costs.
Refuse collection usually occurs at least once per week because of the rapid decomposition of food waste. The amount of garbage in the refuse of an individual home can be reduced by garbage grinders, or garbage disposals. Ground garbage puts an extra load on sewerage systems, but this can usually be accommodated. Many communities now conduct source separation and recycling programs, in which homeowners and businesses separate recyclable materials from garbage and place them in separate containers for collection. In addition, some communities have drop-off centres where residents can bring recyclables.
Transfer stations
If the final destination of the refuse is not near the community in which it is generated, one or more transfer stations may be necessary. A transfer station is a central facility where refuse from many collection vehicles is combined into a larger vehicle, such as a tractor-trailer unit. Open-top trailers are designed to carry about 76 cubic metres (100 cubic yards) of uncompacted waste to a regional processing or disposal location. Closed compactor-type trailers are also available, but they must be equipped with ejector mechanisms. In a direct discharge type of station, several collection trucks empty directly into the transport vehicle. In a storage discharge type of station, refuse is first emptied into a storage pit or onto a platform, and then machinery is used to hoist or push the solid waste into the transport vehicle. Large transfer stations can handle more than 500 tons of refuse per day.
Solid-waste treatment and disposal
Once collected, municipal solid waste may be treated in order to reduce the total volume and weight of material that requires final disposal. Treatment changes the form of the waste and makes it easier to handle. It can also serve to recover certain materials, as well as heat energy, for recycling or reuse.
Incineration
Furnace operation
Burning is a very effective method of reducing the volume and weight of solid waste, though it is a source of greenhouse gas emissions. In modern incinerators the waste is burned inside a properly designed furnace under very carefully controlled conditions. The combustible portion of the waste combines with oxygen, releasing mostly carbon dioxide, water vapour, and heat. Incineration can reduce the volume of uncompacted waste by more than 90 percent, leaving an inert residue of ash, glass, metal, and other solid materials called bottom ash. The gaseous by-products of incomplete combustion, along with finely divided particulate material called fly ash, are carried along in the incinerator airstream. Fly ash includes cinders, dust, and soot. In order to remove fly ash and gaseous by-products before they are exhausted into the atmosphere, modern incinerators must be equipped with extensive emission control devices. Such devices include fabric baghouse filters, acid gas scrubbers, and electrostatic precipitators. (See also air pollution control.) Bottom ash and fly ash are usually combined and disposed of in a landfill. If the ash is found to contain toxic metals, it must be managed as a hazardous waste.
Municipal solid-waste incinerators are designed to receive and burn a continuous supply of refuse. A deep refuse storage pit, or tipping area, provides enough space for about one day of waste storage. The refuse is lifted from the pit by a crane equipped with a bucket or grapple device. It is then deposited into a hopper and chute above the furnace and released onto a charging grate or stoker. The grate shakes and moves waste through the furnace, allowing air to circulate around the burning material. Modern incinerators are usually built with a rectangular furnace, although rotary kiln furnaces and vertical circular furnaces are available. Furnaces are constructed of refractory bricks that can withstand the high combustion temperatures.
Combustion in a furnace occurs in two stages: primary and secondary. In primary combustion, moisture is driven off, and the waste is ignited and volatilized. In secondary combustion, the remaining unburned gases and particulates are oxidized, eliminating odours and reducing the amount of fly ash in the exhaust. When the refuse is very moist, auxiliary gas or fuel oil is sometimes burned to start the primary combustion.
In order to provide enough oxygen for both primary and secondary combustion, air must be thoroughly mixed with the burning refuse. Air is supplied from openings beneath the grates or is admitted to the area above. The relative amounts of this underfire air and overfire air must be determined by the plant operator to achieve good combustion efficiency. A continuous flow of air can be maintained by a natural draft in a tall chimney or by mechanical forced-draft fans.
Energy recovery
The energy value of refuse can be as much as one-third that of coal, depending on the paper content, and the heat given off during incineration can be recovered by the use of a refractory-lined furnace coupled to a boiler. Boilers convert the heat of combustion into steam or hot water, thus allowing the energy content of the refuse to be recycled. Incinerators that recycle heat energy in this way are called waste-to-energy plants. Instead of a separate furnace and boiler, a water-tube wall furnace may also be used for energy recovery. Such a furnace is lined with vertical steel tubes spaced closely enough to form continuous sections of wall. The walls are insulated on the outside in order to reduce heat loss. Water circulating through the tubes absorbs heat to produce steam, and it also helps to control combustion temperatures without the need for excessive air, thus lowering air pollution control costs.
Waste-to-energy plants operate as either mass burn or refuse-derived fuel systems. A mass burn system uses all the refuse, without prior treatment or preparation. A refuse-derived fuel system separates combustible wastes from noncombustibles such as glass and metal before burning. If a turbine is installed at the plant, both steam and electricity can be produced in a process called cogeneration.
Waste-to-energy systems are more expensive to build and operate than plain incinerators because of the need for special equipment and controls, highly skilled technical personnel, and auxiliary fuel systems. On the other hand, the sale of generated steam or electricity offsets much of the extra cost, and recovery of heat energy from refuse is a viable solid-waste management option from both an engineering and an economic point of view. About 80 percent of municipal refuse incinerators in the United States are waste-to-energy facilities.