malware, malicious computer program, or “malicious software,” such as viruses, trojans, spyware, and worms. Malware typically infects a personal computer (PC) through e-mail, Web sites, or attached hardware devices. Mobile malware, including spyware and ransomware, attacks smartphones and tablets, often through text messages and mobile apps.

Malware may be used to take over PCs, turning them into zombie computers that may form part of a “botnet” used to send out spam or perform denial of service attacks on Web sites. In addition, malware has been used to distribute pornography and unlicensed software. Owners of infected PCs often become aware of a problem only as their machines become progressively slower or they find unidentifiable software that cannot be removed.

Rootkits are one of the worst forms of malware. Their name comes from the fact that they infect the “root-level” of a computer’s hard drive, making them impossible to remove without completely erasing the drives. In efforts to curb copyright infringement, some computer software makers and music companies secretly install detection software on users’ machines. For example, it was revealed in 2005 that the Sony Corporation had been secretly installing rootkits as its music CDs were loaded into PCs. The rootkit was discovered because of the way that it collected information on users’ PCs and sent the data back to Sony. The revelation turned into a public relations disaster, which forced the company to abandon the practice. The practice of monitoring users’ data, with or without installing rootkits, continues in the software industry.

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The evolution of malware reached a new milestone in 2010, when the Stuxnet worm proliferated on computers around the world. Characterized as “weaponized software” by security experts, Stuxnet exploited four separate vulnerabilities in the Windows operating system to achieve administrator-level control over specialized industrial networks created by Siemens AG. By attacking these supervisory control and data acquisition (SCADA) systems, Stuxnet was able to cause industrial processes to behave in a manner inconsistent with their original programming, thus crossing the line between cyberspace and the “real world.” While Stuxnet’s intended target remained a matter of debate, the worm demonstrated that SCADA systems, which provide the backbone for such critical infrastructure sites as nuclear power plants and electrical grid substations, could be subverted by malicious code.

Another development in 2010 was the founding of the Israeli cyber-intelligence firm NSO Group for eavesdropping on mobile phones and harvesting their data. Its chief spyware, Pegasus, has been highly controversial, used to track politicians, government leaders, human rights activists, dissidents, and journalists. Although NSO Group claims its product is sold exclusively to government security and law enforcement agencies and only for the purpose of aiding rescue operations and battling criminals, such as money launderers, sex- and drug-traffickers, and terrorists, the spyware was used in 2018 by the Saudi Arabian government to track Saudi journalist and U.S. resident Jamal Khashoggi. Months before Khashoggi’s murder and dismemberment by Saudi agents in October 2018, Pegasus had been attached to the phone of Khashoggi’s wife. Facebook (now Meta Platforms) sued NSO Group under the United States Computer Fraud and Abuse Act in 2019, and two years later, Apple also sued. U.S. President Joseph Biden blacklisted the company in 2021, making it illegal for U.S. firms to sell technology to NSO Group.