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Casey at the Bat: A Ballad of the Republic, Sung in the Year 1888
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Casey at the Bat, humorous poem about a baseball game, written by Ernest Lawrence Thayer and first published in the San Francisco newspaper The Daily Examiner in 1888. The young actor, comedian, and singer DeWolf Hopper popularized it by reciting the poem on stage. It was the only work by Thayer that found a wide readership, but it has become a quintessential piece of American literature. In 1967 American Heritage magazine described it as “the nation’s best-known piece of comic verse—a ballad that began a native legend as colorful and permanent as that of Johnny Appleseed or Paul Bunyan.”

“Love has its sonnets galore; War its epics in heroic verse; Tragedy its sombre story in measured lines; and Base Ball has ‘Casey at the Bat.’ ”—A.G. Spalding, America’s National Game, 1911

Ernest Lawrence Thayer

Thayer was born in 1863 and grew up in Massachusetts. He attended Harvard University, where he studied with the philosopher William James and became president and editor of the university’s humor magazine, The Harvard Lampoon. His classmates called him by the nickname “Phinney.” After graduating in 1885 Thayer spent about a a year and a half in San Francisco, working at the Examiner under the management of William Randolph Hearst (whose father, George Hearst, had bought the paper in 1880 before turning it over to his son seven years later). Thayer and William Hearst had been friends at Harvard, where Hearst had been the Lampoon’s business manager. Among other contributions to the Examiner, Thayer wrote ballads that appeared in the Sunday edition about every other week under the byline “Phin.”

In February 1888 Thayer returned to Massachusetts and started working in his family’s wool manufacturing business in Worcester. However, he continued sending his writing to the Examiner, and on June 3 he published “Casey at the Bat: A Ballad of the Republic, Sung in the Year 1888.” As with his other ballads, it was attributed to Phin.

“No joy in Mudville”

Beginning with the line “The outlook wasn’t brilliant for the Mudville nine that day,” the ballad narrates the last inning of a baseball game and is set in the fictional town of Mudville. Mudville’s team is losing 4–2 against an unnamed foe. Two players have failed to make it to first base—“Cooney died at first, and Barrows did the same”—leaving the team with two outs. Much to the despair of the fans in the audience, the next two batters are also unremarkable—“the former was a lulu and the latter was a cake.” Miraculously, those hitters manage to get onto second and third bases, putting them both in scoring positions:

But Flynn let drive a single, to the wonderment of all,
And Blake, the much despised, tore the cover off the ball;
And when the dust had lifted, and men saw what had occurred,
There was Jimmy safe at second and Flynn a-hugging third.

Now “mighty Casey,” the team’s best hitter, steps up to the plate as the 5,000 fans cheer wildly. Casey, partly out of arrogance, does not swing at the first two pitches, and the umpire declares them both strikes. Enraged, the fans call for the umpire’s death and declare him a fraud. An overconfident Casey waits for the third and final pitch:

The sneer is gone from Casey’s lip, his teeth are clinched in hate;
He pounds with cruel violence his bat upon the plate.
And now the pitcher holds the ball, and now he lets it go,
And now the air is shattered by the force of Casey’s blow.


The game ends on this tragic note of defeat, and the fans go home disappointed: “But there is no joy in Mudville—mighty Casey has struck out.”

DeWolf Hopper

In July 1888, Jim Kennedy, editor of the New York Sporting Times reprinted an abbreviated version of the poem, changing Casey’s name to Kelly for Mike (“King”) Kelly, a popular player with the Boston Beaneaters, (originally the Boston Red Stockings, now the Atlanta Braves) and Mudville to Boston. That August DeWolf Hopper, who was an obsessive baseball fan, recited Thayer’s original version before an audience at Wallack’s Theatre in New York City. Two baseball teams that Kelly had played for—the Chicago White Stockings (now the Chicago Cubs) and the New York Giants—were in attendance. The performance was a massive success. Hopper continued to recite the ballad on stages and over the radio, likely performing it more than 10,000 times over the next four decades. (In his 1927 memoir Hopper wrote, “The actual number of times is a problem for one of those laid-end-to-end statisticians.”)

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The mystery of Casey and Mudville

The poem soon became ubiquitous in American culture, but hardly anyone knew the author’s identity. Many people claimed to have written it, and others claimed to have inspired Casey’s character. Various towns have put themselves forth as the real-life Mudville. Meanwhile, Thayer, who had received only $5 for its initial publication, had devoted himself to wool manufacturing and did not make a serious effort to claim credit.

Thayer and Hopper were at last introduced at the Worcester Club in Thayer’s hometown in the 1890s. On that occasion, some members at the Worcester Club pressured Thayer to recite “Casey.” Hopper described Thayer as “the most charming of men” in his memoir but said that he had no talent for performance. “In a sweet, dulcet Harvard whisper [Thayer] implored Casey to murder the umpire, and gave this cry of mass animal rage all the emphasis of a caterpillar wearing rubbers crawling on a velvet carpet,” the actor wrote. “He was rotten!”

Also during this meeting, Thayer revealed that the inspiration for his poem was a childhood friend named Samuel Winslow, who had been the captain of Harvard’s baseball team in 1885. Thayer largely dismissed the adulation for his poem, once likening his work as “nonsense” and remarking, “It would be hard to say, all things considered, if it has given me more pleasure than annoyance.” He retired early and moved back to California in 1912. He died in Santa Barbara in 1940.

“Casey” in American culture

Hopper conceded that there were greater poems in American literature, but he wondered whether any would endure longer than “Casey.” Indeed, the poem has been performed and recorded countless times, and the expression “No joy in Mudville” entered the American lexicon. Walt Disney Productions released an adaptation as part of the animated film Make Mine Music in 1946. The composer William Schuman adapted it into the opera The Mighty Casey in 1953.

Numerous famous actors, including Vincent Price and James Earl Jones, have recorded dramatic readings of the poem, as did New York Yankees’ sportscaster Mel Allen. T.S. Eliot and Ray Bradbury are among the writers who produced parodies of “Casey at the Bat.” Perhaps the most imaginative use of the poem was that of magicians Penn and Teller. In the 1980s the duo included in their act an amusing segment in which Penn would recite “Casey at the Bat” while Teller, confined to a straitjacket and suspended upside-down over a bed of nails, attempted to escape his predicament before Penn reached the poem’s end.

Nick Tabor

baseball, game played with a bat, a ball, and gloves between two teams of nine players each on a field with four white bases laid out in a diamond (i.e., a square oriented so that its diagonal line is vertical). Teams alternate positions as batters (offense) and fielders (defense), exchanging places when three members of the batting team are “put out.” As batters, players try to hit the ball out of the reach of the fielding team and make a complete circuit around the bases for a “run.” The team that scores the most runs in nine innings (times at bat) wins the game.

(Learn about a 21st-century innovation in baseball equipment in What Are Torpedo Bats?)

A national pastime

The United States is credited with developing several popular sports, including some (such as baseball, gridiron football, and basketball) that have large fan bases and, to varying degrees, have been adopted internationally. But baseball, despite the spread of the game throughout the globe and the growing influence of Asian and Latin American leagues and players, is the sport that Americans still recognize as their “national pastime.” The game has long been woven into the fabric of American life and identity. “It’s our game,” exclaimed the poet Walt Whitman more than a century ago, “that’s the chief fact in connection with it: America’s game.” He went on to explain that baseball

has the snap, go, fling of the American atmosphere—it belongs as much to our institutions, fits into them as significantly, as our constitutions, laws: is just as important in the sum total of our historic life. It is the place where memory gathers.

Perhaps Whitman exaggerated baseball’s importance to and its congruency with life in the United States, but few would argue the contrary, that baseball has been merely a simple or an occasional diversion.

Serena Williams poses with the Daphne Akhurst Trophy after winning the Women's Singles final against Venus Williams of the United States on day 13 of the 2017 Australian Open at Melbourne Park on January 28, 2017 in Melbourne, Australia. (tennis, sports)
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It was nationalistic sentiment that helped to make baseball “America’s game.” In the quest to obtain greater cultural autonomy, Americans yearned for a sport they could claim as exclusively their own. Just as the English had cricket and the Germans their turnvereins (gymnastic clubs), a sporting newspaper declared as early as 1857 that Americans should have a “game that could be termed a ‘Native American Sport.’ ” A powerful confirmation of baseball as the sport to fill that need came in 1907 when a special commission appointed by A.G. Spalding, a sporting goods magnate who had formerly been a star pitcher and an executive with a baseball team, reported that baseball owed absolutely nothing to England and the children’s game of rounders. Instead, the commission claimed that, to the best of its knowledge (a knowledge based on flimsy research and self-serving logic), baseball had been invented by Abner Doubleday at Cooperstown, New York, in 1839. This origin myth was perpetuated for decades.

In a country comprising a multiplicity of ethnic and religious groups, one without a monarchy, an aristocracy, or a long and mythic past, the experience of playing, watching, and talking about baseball games became one of the nation’s great common denominators. It provided, in the perceptive words of British novelist Virginia Woolf, “a centre, a meeting place for the divers activities of a people whom a vast continent isolates [and] whom no tradition controls.” No matter where one lived, the “hit-and-run,” the “double play,” and the “sacrifice bunt” were carried out the same way. The unifying power of baseball in the United States was evident in the Depression-ravaged 1930s, when a group of Cooperstown’s businessmen along with officials from the major leagues established the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum. The Hall of Fame became a quasi-religious shrine for many Americans, and, since its founding, millions of fans have made “pilgrimages” to Cooperstown, where they have observed the “relics”—old bats, balls, and uniforms—of bygone heroes.

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Baseball also reshaped the nation’s calendar. With the rise of industrialization, the standardized clock time of the office or factory robbed people of the earlier experience of time in its rich associations with the daylight hours, the natural rhythms of the seasons, and the traditional church calendar. Yet, for Americans, the opening of the baseball training season signaled the arrival of spring, regular-season play meant summer, and the World Series marked the arrival of fall. In the winter, baseball fans participated in “hot stove leagues,” reminiscing about past games and greats and speculating about what the next season had to offer.

The World Series, inaugurated in 1903 and pitting the champions of the American and National Leagues in a postseason play-off, quickly took its place alongside the Fourth of July and Christmas as one of the most popular annual rites. The series was, said Everybody’s Magazine in 1911, “the very quintessence and consummation of the Most Perfect Thing in America.” Each fall it absorbed the entire nation.

Baseball terms and phrases, such as “He threw me a curve,” “Her presentation covered all the bases,” and “He’s really out in left field,” soon became part of the national vocabulary, so entrenched is baseball in the ordinary conversation of Americans. During the administration of President George H.W. Bush, a baseball player during his years at Yale University, the foreign press struggled to translate the president’s routine use of baseball metaphors. As early as the 1850s, baseball images began to appear in periodicals, and, in the 20th century, popular illustrator Norman Rockwell often used baseball as the subject for his The Saturday Evening Post covers. “Casey at the Bat” and “Take Me Out to the Ballgame” remain among the best-known poems and songs, respectively, among Americans. Novelists and filmmakers frequently have turned to baseball motifs. After the mid-20th century, at the very time baseball at the grassroots level had begun a perceptible descent, baseball fiction proliferated. American colleges and universities even began to offer courses on baseball literature, and baseball films likewise proliferated. In 1994 the Public Broadcasting System released Ken Burns’s nostalgic Baseball, arguably the most monumental historical television documentary ever made.

While baseball possessed enormous integrative powers, the game’s history also has been interwoven with and reflective of major social and cultural cleavages. Until the first decades of the 20th century, middle-class Evangelical Protestants viewed the sport with profound suspicion. They associated baseball, or at least the professional version of the game, with ne’er-do-wells, immigrants, the working class, drinking, gambling, and general rowdiness. Conversely, these very qualities provided a foothold for the upward ascent of ethnic groups from the nation’s ghettos. Usually encountering less discrimination in baseball (as well as in other venues of commercial entertainment) than they did in the more “respectable” occupations, in the 19th century Irish and German Americans were so conspicuous in professional baseball that some observers wondered if they had a special capacity for playing the game.

For a brief time in the 1880s, before racial segregation became the norm in the United States, Black players competed with white players in professional baseball. After that period, however, Black players had to carve out a separate world of baseball. Dozens of Black teams faced local semiprofessional teams while barnstorming throughout the United States, Canada, Mexico, and the Caribbean. Despite playing a high quality of baseball, the players frequently engaged in various forms of clowning that perpetuated prevailing stereotypes of Black people to appeal to spectators. From the 1920s until the ’50s, separate Black professional leagues—the Negro leagues—existed as well, but in 1947 Jackie Robinson crossed the long-standing color bar in major league baseball. Because baseball was the national game, its racial integration was of enormous symbolic importance in the United States; indeed, it preceded the U.S. Supreme Court’s decision ending racial segregation in the schools (in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka) and helped to usher in the civil rights movement of the 1950s and ’60s. Moreover, in the 1980s and ’90s a huge influx of Hispanics into professional baseball reflected the country’s changing ethnic composition.

Baseball likewise contributed to the shaping of American conceptions of gender roles. Although women were playing baseball as early as the 1860s, their involvement in the sport was confined for the most part to the role of spectator. To counter the game’s reputation for rowdiness, baseball promoters took pains to encourage women to attend. “The presence of an assemblage of ladies purifies the moral atmosphere of a baseball gathering,” reported the Baseball Chronicle, “repressing as it does, all the out-burst of intemperate language which the excitement of a contest so frequently induces.” When women played on barnstorming teams in the 19th and the first half of the 20th century, the press routinely referred to them as “Amazons,” “freaks,” or “frauds.” In 1943, during World War II, when it was feared that professional baseball might be forced to close down, the All-American Girls Professional Baseball League made its debut. After having provided more than 600 women an opportunity to play baseball and to entertain several million fans, the league folded in 1954.

But, even if unable to heal conflicts arising from fundamental social divisions, baseball exhibited an extraordinary capacity for fostering ties. In the 1850s, young artisans and clerks, frequently displaced in the city and finding their way of life changing rapidly in the midst of the Industrial Revolution, conceived of themselves as members of what was known as the “base ball fraternity.” Like the volunteer fire departments and militia units of the day, they donned special uniforms, developed their own rituals, and, in playing baseball, shared powerful common experiences. Playing and watching baseball contests also strengthened occupational, ethnic, and racial identities. Butchers, typesetters, draymen, bricklayers, and even clergymen organized baseball clubs. So did Irish Americans, German Americans, and African Americans.

Professional baseball nourished and deepened urban identities. “If we are ahead of the big city [New York] in nothing else,” crowed the Brooklyn Eagle as early as 1862, “we can beat her in baseball.” Fans invested their emotions in their professional representative nines. “A deep gloom settled over the city,” reported a Chicago newspaper in 1875 after the local White Stockings had been defeated by the St. Louis (Missouri) Brown Stockings. “Friends refused to recognize friends, lovers became estranged, and business was suspended.” Even in the late 20th century, in an age more given to cynicism, the successes and failures of professional teams continued to evoke strong feelings among local residents. For example, during the 1990s, after having experienced urban decay and demoralization in the previous two decades, Cleveland experienced a great civic revival fueled in part by the success of the Indians baseball team.

The significance of specific baseball teams and individual players extended beyond the localities that they represented. The New York Yankees, who in the first half of the 20th century were the quintessential representatives of the big city, of the East, of urban America with its sophistication, and of ethnic and religious heterogeneity, became synonymous with supernal success, while the St. Louis Cardinals emerged as the quintessential champions of the Midwest, of small towns and the farms, of rural America with its simplicity, rusticity, and old-stock Protestant homogeneity. In the 1920s Babe Ruth became the diamond’s colossal demigod. To those toiling on assembly lines or sitting at their desks in corporate bureaucracies, Ruth embodied America’s continuing faith in upward social mobility. His mighty home runs furnished vivid proof that men remained masters of their own destinies and that they could still rise from mean, vulgar beginnings to fame and fortune. For African Americans, Black stars such as Satchel Paige and Josh Gibson furnished equally compelling models of individual inspiration and success.

Baseball parks became important local civic monuments and repositories of collective memories. The first parks had been jerry-built, flimsy wooden structures, but between 1909 and 1923 some 15 major league clubs constructed new, more permanent parks of steel and concrete. These edifices were akin to the great public buildings, skyscrapers, and railway terminals of the day; local residents proudly pointed to them as evidence of their city’s size and its achievements.

Seeing them as retreats from the noise, dirt, and squalor of the industrial city, the owners gave the first parks pastoral names—Ebbets Field, Sportsman’s Park, and the Polo Grounds—but, with the construction of symmetrical, multisports facilities in the 1960s and ’70s, urban and futuristic names such as Astrodome and Kingdome predominated. In a new park-building era in the 1990s, designers sought to recapture the ambience of earlier times by designing “retro parks,” a term that was something of an oxymoron in that, while the new parks offered the fan the intimacy of the old-time parks, they simultaneously provided modern conveniences such as escalators, climate-controlled lounges, high-tech audiovisual systems, Disneyesque play areas for children, and space for numerous retail outlets. The increasing corporate influence on the game was reflected in park names such as Network Associates Stadium and Bank One Ballpark.

After about the mid-20th century, baseball’s claim to being America’s game rested on more precarious foundations than in the past. The sport faced potent competition, not only from other professional sports (especially gridiron football) but even more from a massive conversion of Americans from public to private, at-home diversions. Attendance as a percentage of population fell at all levels of baseball, the minor leagues became a shell of their former selves, and hundreds of semipro and amateur teams folded. In the 1990s, player strikes, free agency, disparities in competition, and the rising cost of attending games added to the woes of major league baseball. Yet, baseball continued to exhibit a remarkable resiliency; attendance at professional games improved, and attendance at minor league games was close to World War II records by the end of the century. As the 21st century opened, baseball still faced serious problems, but the sport was gaining in popularity around the world, and a strong case could still be made for baseball holding a special place in the hearts and minds of the American people.

Benjamin G. Rader