After February 1948 Czechoslovakia belonged to the Communist Party apparatus. The economy was subject to further nationalization, and all agricultural land became state or collective farms. When a new constitution declaring the country to be a “people’s republic” (i.e., a communist state) was promulgated on May 9, Beneš, though seriously incapacitated by illness, finally displayed signs of resistance; he refused to undersign the constitution and resigned as president. Under a new electoral law and with a single list of candidates, a general election was held on May 30, and the new National Assembly elected Gottwald president. Antonín Zápotocký succeeded him as premier, while Rudolf Slánský retained the powerful post of secretary general of the Czechoslovak Communist Party.

With the communists firmly in power, the will of Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin was soon imposed on Czechoslovakia. In 1947 Moscow had set up the Cominform (Communist Information Bureau) to tighten discipline within the socialist camp; in the autumn of 1949 Soviet advisers were sent to Czechoslovakia. In 1950 the outbreak of the Korean War initiated, under Soviet pressure, a vast rearmament program in the country.

Meanwhile, the communists had begun purging the armed forces of officers suspected of being pro-Western. As an example, Gen. Heliodor Pika, deputy chief of staff of the Czechoslovak army and Beneš’s wartime military representative in the Soviet Union, was arrested on trumped-up charges of espionage in May 1948; he was executed in June 1949. His trial was followed by a witch hunt inside the entire officer corps.

Another target of the party was religion, especially the Roman Catholic Church. Church dignitaries were interned; monasteries and religious orders were dissolved; and a state office for church affairs was set up to bring churches under communist control. Soviet security advisers helped to prepare the trials of clergy who refused to cooperate with the communist authorities, and an effort was made to organize a group of collaborationist clergy.

In a series of purges beginning in 1950, noncommunists were charged with various antistate activities. In June Milada Horáková, a former member of the National Assembly, and other politicians from the right and the left were tried for espionage. She and several others were sentenced to death. Gottwald also was put under pressure to uncover ideological opponents in the Czechoslovak Communist Party, which Soviet advisers now began to scrutinize. Charges of “nationalistic deviationism” and “Titoism” (referring to Josip Broz Tito, the renegade communist leader of Yugoslavia) were leveled against the foreign minister, Vladimír Clementis, who was dismissed from office, as were the Slovak regional premier, Gustav Husák, and several other Slovaks; all were accused of “bourgeois nationalism.” In February 1951 Clementis, Husák, and several others were arrested, and in December 1952 Clementis was executed. Additionally, First Secretary Rudolf Slánský and 10 other high party officials, mostly Jewish, were sentenced to death in a trial considered by some to be the climax of the communist purges in eastern Europe. All together, some 180 politicians were executed in these purges, and thousands were held in prisons and labour camps.

In March 1953, a few days after Stalin’s funeral, Gottwald unexpectedly died. Antonín Zápotocký was elected president, while Viliám Široký, a Slovak, became premier; the powerful post of the party’s first secretary went to Antonín Novotný, who had played a very active role in conducting the purges. That May a monetary reform, which effectively deprived the farmers and better-paid workers of all their savings, led to sporadic riots against the communist authorities. The riots gave Novotný, backed by Moscow, an excuse to check any attempt by Zápotocký and Široký to ease government repression. In 1957, when Zápotocký died, Novotný combined the party secretaryship with the presidency. His faction—mostly mediocre apparatchiks—became supreme and remained so until 1968. Novotný kept Stalinism alive. Show trials continued until 1955, after which administrative sanctions began to be employed.

The growing reform movement

By the early 1960s Novotný faced acute economic problems. The communists’ industrial and agricultural plans had failed to bolster the economy, and stagnation had set in. In industry, production costs remained high, fuel supplies were short, the quality of goods was poor, and absenteeism was widespread. Production began to fall. In agriculture, the situation was worse: collectivized agriculture produced less in 1960 than had been produced in the prewar years.

In September 1964 the government was forced to accept a new set of economic principles put forward by a group of reformers who had advanced through the party ranks. Prominent among them was economics professor Ota Šik, who advocated replacing the country’s rigid command economy with a mixed economy. Managers of enterprises would have a free hand in production and trading, and the efficiency of each enterprise would be measured by its “profitability” in terms of the labour and capital invested. Wholesale prices were to be overhauled in 1967 and 1968. Reform in agriculture was also attempted in 1966, with a cutback in central planning and the introduction of marketing principles. To attract Western currency, tourism was to be encouraged by doubling the old tourist rate of exchange. Novotný, however, refused to seek credit from the West for fear of becoming too dependent on capitalism, and in the end few of the proposed economic changes were implemented. Novotný’s timid reforms thus satisfied no one, resolved no serious problems, and brought into existence a conspicuous pressure group (known as the “economists”) within the party leadership.

A Slovak pressure group emerged as well. Although Novotný agreed to the rehabilitation of the Slovaks purged in the 1950s, a new constitution in 1960 further restricted Slovak autonomy. By 1963, new leaders had moved into power in Slovakia; Karol Bacílek, who was compromised by the purges in the 1950s, was replaced as first secretary of the Slovak Communist Party by Alexander Dubček. When the rehabilitated Slovaks, among whom was Gustav Husák, began to clamour for a federal solution to their problem, Novotný could propose nothing better than disciplinary measures. The Slovaks turned against him—contributing to his imminent downfall.

The immediate cause of Novotný’s downfall, however, was unrest in the public and cultural spheres, particularly among students and writers. The young generation, raised under the communist regime and educated according to the Soviet model, had tired of restrictions on personal freedom and was critical of the country’s low standard of living. Students were restless throughout the 1960s, and the traditional student festival, the Majáles, in 1966 became a riot against the regime. Then in 1967, dissatisfied with the conditions in their dormitories, students gathered in the streets demanding “more light.” The party felt challenged and sent in the police. In the end the minister of the interior apologized for police brutality against the students. Meanwhile, since 1962 the country’s writers, despite the imposition of Socialist Realism as the official literary style, had produced some remarkable works that had escaped censorship. In 1967, at a congress of Czechoslovak writers, many refused to conform to the standards demanded by the Communist Party. Novotný answered this rebellion with sanctions: Jan Beneš was sent to prison for antistate propaganda; Ludvík Vaculík, Antonín J. Liehm, and Ivan Klíma were expelled from the party; and Jan Procházka was dismissed from the party’s Central Committee, of which he was a candidate member. This repression merely strengthened opposition to Novotný, however.

During the session of the Central Committee in October 1967, an open clash occurred between Novotný and the Slovaks. When Novotný hinted that Dubček and the rest of the Slovak opposition were tainted with “bourgeois nationalism,” he sealed his fate as a leader. Novotný invited Leonid Brezhnev, first secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, to Prague to help him quash the dissension, but Brezhnev refused to get involved. Novotný, now deserted, faced another hostile session in December. After Šik’s demand that the presidency be separated from the party office, Novotný offered his resignation as first secretary. This was accepted at the next session, and in January 1968 Novotný himself recommended as his successor his Slovak opponent Dubček, who was elected unanimously after the Central Committee failed to agree on the other candidates.