In 1989 a wave of protests against communist rule erupted in eastern Europe; among the most significant events were the culmination of the Polish Solidarity movement, the adoption of a democratic constitution in Hungary, and the mass exodus of thousands of freedom-seeking East Germans, some via Prague, after Hungary opened its border with Austria. Despite the momentous events in surrounding countries, the Czechoslovak people took little action until late in the fall of 1989. On November 16, students in Bratislava gathered for a peaceful demonstration; the next day a student march, approved by the authorities, took place in Prague. The Prague march was intended to commemorate the 50th anniversary of the suppression of a student demonstration in German-occupied Prague, but students soon began criticizing the regime, and the police reacted with brutality.

This incident set off a nationwide protest movement—dubbed the Velvet Revolution—that gained particular strength in the country’s industrial centres. Prodemocracy demonstrations and strikes took place under the makeshift leadership of the Civic Forum, an opposition group for which the dissident playwright and Charter 77 coauthor Václav Havel served as chief spokesman. In Slovakia a parallel group named Public Against Violence was founded. Daily mass gatherings culminated in a general strike on November 27, during which the people demanded free elections and an end to one-party rule.

The communist authorities were forced to negotiate with the opposition, and, as a result, a transition government incorporating members of the Civic Forum and Public Against Violence was formed. Husák resigned in December 1989, and Havel was chosen to succeed him as Czechoslovakia’s first noncommunist president in more than 40 years. The former party leader Alexander Dubček returned to political life as the new speaker of the Federal Assembly. In June 1990, in the first free elections held in Czechoslovakia since 1946, the Civic Forum and Public Against Violence won decisive majorities; in July Havel was reelected as president.

The new government undertook the multifarious tasks of the transition from communism to democracy, beginning with privatizing businesses, revamping foreign policy, and writing a new constitution. The last Soviet troops were withdrawn from Czechoslovakia in June 1991, and the Warsaw Pact was disbanded the following month, thus completing Czechoslovakia’s separation from the Soviet bloc. However, the drafting of a new constitution was hindered by differences between political parties, Czech-Slovak tensions, and power struggles. Another serious obstacle was the cumbersome federal structure inherited from the communists. When issues dividing Czechs and Slovaks were discussed, the existence of multiple ministerial cabinets and diets made it extremely difficult to achieve the prescribed majority on the federal level. Moreover, the minority bloc of Slovak deputies had disproportionate veto power.

The Czechoslovak federation began to appear increasingly fragile in 1991–92, and separatism became a momentous issue. Parliamentary elections in June 1992 gave the Czech premiership to Václav Klaus, an economist by training and finance minister since 1989. Klaus headed a centre-right coalition that included the Civic Democratic Party, which he had cofounded. The Slovak premiership went to Vladimir Mečiar, a vocal Slovak nationalist and prominent member of Public Against Violence who had served briefly as Slovak prime minister in 1990–91. Mečiar headed his Movement for a Democratic Slovakia party. The parties led by Klaus and Mečiar were supported by about one-third of the electorate in their respective republics, but the differences between the two were so great that a lasting federal government could not be formed.

After Havel’s resignation on July 20, 1992, no suitable candidate for the federal presidency emerged; Czechoslovakia now lacked a symbol of unity as well as a convincing advocate. Thus, the assumption was readily made, at least in political circles, that the Czechoslovak state would have to be divided. There was little evidence of public enthusiasm for the split, but neither Klaus nor Mečiar wished to ask the population for a verdict through a referendum. The two republics proceeded with separation negotiations in an atmosphere of peace and cooperation. By late November, members of the National Assembly had voted Czechoslovakia out of existence. Both republics promulgated new constitutions, and at midnight on Dec. 31, 1992, after 74 years of joint existence disrupted only by World War II, Czechoslovakia was formally dissolved. With the completion of this so-called Velvet Divorce, the independent countries of Slovakia and the Czech Republic were created on Jan. 1, 1993.