Earth exploration
Earth exploration, the investigation of the surface of the Earth and of its interior.
By the beginning of the 20th century most of the Earth’s surface had been explored, at least superficially, except for the Arctic and Antarctic regions. Today the last of the unmarked areas on land maps have been filled in by radar and photographic mapping from aircraft and satellites. One of the last areas to be mapped was the Darién peninsula between the Panama Canal and Colombia. Heavy clouds, steady rain, and dense jungle vegetation made its exploration difficult, but airborne radar was able to penetrate the cloud cover to produce reliable, detailed maps of the area. In recent years data returned by Earth satellites have led to several notable discoveries, as, for example, drainage patterns in the Sahara, which are relics of a period when this region was not arid.
Historically, exploration of the Earth’s interior was confined to the near surface, and this was largely a matter of following downward those discoveries made at the surface. Most present-day scientific knowledge of the subject has been obtained through geophysical research conducted since World War II, and the deep Earth remains a major frontier in the 21st century.
Exploration of space and the ocean depths has been facilitated by the placement of sensors and related devices in these regions. Only a very limited portion of the subsurface regions of the Earth, however, can be studied in this way. Investigators can drill into only the uppermost crust, and the high cost severely limits the number of holes that can be drilled. The deepest borehole so far drilled extends only to a depth of about 10 kilometres (6 miles). Because direct exploration is so restricted, investigators are forced to rely extensively on geophysical measurements (see below Methodology and instrumentation).
Primary objectives and accomplishments
Scientific curiosity, the desire to understand better the nature of the Earth, is a major motive for exploring its surface and subsurface regions. Another key motive is the prospect of economic profit. Improved standards of living have increased the demand for water, fuel, and other materials, creating economic incentives. Pure knowledge has often been a by-product of profit-motivated exploration; by the same token, substantial economic benefits have resulted from the quest for scientific knowledge.
Many surface and subsurface exploratory projects are undertaken with the aim of locating: (1) oil, natural gas, and coal; (2) concentrations of commercially important minerals (for example, ores of iron, copper, and uranium) and deposits of building materials (sand, gravel, etc.); (3) recoverable groundwater; (4) various rock types at different depths for engineering planning; (5) geothermal reserves for heating and electricity; and (6) archaeological features.
Concern for safety has prompted extensive searches for possible hazards before major construction projects are undertaken. Sites for dams, power plants, nuclear reactors, factories, tunnels, roads, hazardous waste depositories, and so forth need to be stable and provide assurance that underlying formations will not shift or slide from the weight of the construction, move along a fault during an earthquake, or permit the seepage of water or wastes. Accordingly, prediction and control of earthquakes and volcanic eruptions are major fields of research in the United States and Japan, countries susceptible to such hazards. Geophysical surveys furnish a more complete picture than test boreholes alone, although some boreholes are usually drilled to verify the geophysical interpretation.
Methodology and instrumentation
Geophysical techniques involve measuring reflectivity, magnetism, gravity, acoustic or elastic waves, radioactivity, heat flow, electricity, and electromagnetism. Most measurements are made on the surface of the land or sea, but some are taken from aircraft or satellites, and still others are made underground in boreholes or mines and at ocean depths.
Geophysical mapping depends on the existence of a difference in physical properties of adjacent bodies of rock—i.e., between whatever is being sought and those of the surroundings. Often the difference is provided by something associated with but other than what is being sought. Examples include a configuration of sedimentary layers that form a trap for oil accumulation, a drainage pattern that might affect groundwater flow, or a dike or host rock where minerals may be concentrated. Different methods depend on different physical properties. Which particular method is used is determined by what is being sought. In most cases, however, data from a combination of methods rather than from simply one method yield a much clearer picture.
Remote sensing
This comprises measurements of electromagnetic radiation from the ground, usually of reflected energy in various spectral ranges measured from aircraft or satellites. Remote sensing encompasses aerial photography and other kinds of measurements that are generally displayed in the form of photograph-like images. Its applications involve a broad range of studies, including cartographic, botanical, geological, and military investigations.
Remote-sensing techniques involve using combinations of images. Images from different flight paths can be combined to allow an interpreter to perceive features in three dimensions, while those in different spectral bands may identify specific types of rock, soil, vegetation, and other entities, where species have distinctive reflectance values in different spectral regions (i.e., tone signatures). Images taken at intervals make it possible to observe changes that occur over time, such as the seasonal growth of a crop or changes wrought by a storm or flood. Those taken at different times of the day or at different sun angles may reveal quite distinct features; for example, seafloor features in relatively shallow water in a calm sea can be mapped when the Sun is high. Radar radiation penetrates clouds and thus permits mapping from above them. Side-looking airborne radar (SLAR) is sensitive to changes in land slope and surface roughness. By registering images from adjacent flight paths, synthetic stereo pairs may give ground elevations.
Thermal infrared energy is detected by an optical-mechanical scanner. The detector is cooled by a liquid-nitrogen (or liquid-helium) jacket that encloses it, making the instrument sensitive at long wavelengths and isolating it from heat radiation from the immediate surroundings. A rotating mirror directs radiation coming from various directions onto the sensor. An image can be created by displaying the output in a form synchronized with the direction of the beam (as with a cathode-ray tube). Infrared radiation permits mapping surface temperatures to a precision of less than a degree and thus shows the effects of phenomena that produce temperature variations, such as groundwater movement.
Landsat images are among the most commonly used. They are produced with data obtained from a multispectral scanner carried aboard certain U.S. Landsat satellites orbiting the Earth at an altitude of about 900 kilometres. Images covering an area of 185 kilometres square are available for every segment of the Earth’s surface. Scanner measurements are made in four spectral bands: green and red in the visible portion of the spectrum, and two infrared bands. The data are usually displayed by arbitrarily assigning different colours to the bands and then superimposing these to make “false-colour” images.
In geology, Landsat images are used to delineate landforms, rock outcrops and surface lithology, structural features, hydrothermal areas, and sites of mineral resources. Changes in vegetation revealed in the images may distinguish different soil types, subtle elevation differences, subsurface water distribution, subcropping rocks, and trace element distribution, among other things. Lineations of features may distinguish folded-rock strata or fault ruptures even where the primary features are not evident.