Gitagovinda
- Sanskrit:
- “The Poem in Which the Cowherd Is Sung”
- In full:
- Gitagovindakavyam
Gitagovinda, Sanskrit lyric poem, composed by the 12th-century Indian poet Jayadeva, that recounts the divine love of Hindu deity Krishna and his consort Radha. Jayadeva was a court poet of King Lakshmanasena of Bengal (a historical region in northeastern India, now divided between the Indian state of West Bengal and the country of Bangladesh). Structured in 12 cantos and composed for music, the Gitagovinda reflects the conventions of classical kavya (courtly poetic composition)—a highly stylized form of Sanskrit literature marked by the use of ornate metaphors and similes, elaborate poetic figures, hyperbole, and polished, metrical expression. Renowned both for its high literary value and for its expression of religious longing, the poem is popular, particularly among Vaishnavas (followers of Vishnu, of whom Krishna was an incarnation) of India.
Form and structure
The Gitagovinda is composed of 12 cantos (sargas) containing 24 ashtapadi songs, each consisting of 8 stanzas. The highly original form of the poem inspired many later imitations. There are musical annotations—ragas (melodic modes) and talas (rhythmic cycles)—at the head of each ashtapadi. Their presence affirms that the poem was meant to be performed.
Jayadeva’s fusion of dramatic and lyrical modes has challenged literary classification. Scholars have variously described the work as a pastoral drama, a lyric-drama, or a refined yatra (also jatra, a form of musical theater in rural Bengal). One reason for this could be that while it shares the emotional intensity of lyric poetry, its sequential cantos and character-driven dialogues evoke dramatic performance.
Beyond structure, Jayadeva infused the poem with ornamental musicality, employing alliteration, assonance, rhythmic cadence, and rhyme schemes that resemble early vernacular poetry. Modern scholars have proposed that some of Jayadeva’s songs may have originally existed in Apabhramsha (Middle Indo-Aryan vernacular) form and were likely translated to Sanskrit later, which could account for their accessibility and rhythmic ease.
Contents
The Gitagovinda explores the ebb and flow of divine love between Radha and Krishna, portraying their estrangement, longing, and joyful reunion through a cycle of lyrical songs and narrative verses that express jealousy, devotion, remorse, and passionate union. Each canto bears a Sanskrit title that features an epithet or descriptive name of Krishna—such as Damodara (he who was bound around the belly with a rope, referencing Krishna’s childhood exploits) or Madhava (lord of springtime). Though not all 12 cantos introduce a wholly distinct name, these titles mark Krishna’s shifting emotional states and roles throughout the poem. The 12 cantos and their summaries are as follows:
| no. | title | translation | synopsis |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | “Sāmōdā-Dāmodara” | “Krishna Who Is Full of Delight” | A lyrical opening with vivid descriptions of springtime, where Krishna enjoys playful love-sport with gopis (cowherd girls). |
| 2 | “Aklēśa-Kēśava” | “Krishna Without Sorrow or Pain” | Radha, witnessing Krishna with other gopis, becomes jealous and sorrowful. In two songs, she laments his perceived unfaithfulness and recalls their past intimacy. |
| 3 | “Mugdha-Madhusūdana” | “The Enamored Krishna” | Krishna, now repentant, laments within himself for neglecting Radha. His remorse and affection are expressed through intimate and self-reflective lyrics. |
| 4 | “Snigdha-Madhusūdana” | “Krishna Who is Gentle and at Peace” | Radha’s sakhi (female confidante) visits Krishna and reports Radha’s anguish in viraha (separation). Her pain is voiced in two poignant songs. |
| 5 | “Sākāṅkṣa-Puṇḍarīkākṣa” | “Lotus-Eyed Krishna Who Was Full of Desire” | Krishna sends the sakhi to bring Radha to their trysting bower. Two lyrics describe his longing in her absence. The sakhi makes a persuasive mission to retrieve Radha. |
| 6 | “Dhṛṣṭa-Vaikuṇṭha” | “Kṛishna Who Was Both Aggressive or Unrepentant as Well as Shameless” | Radha is too weakened by longing to move. The sakhi returns to Krishna, describing Radha’s distress and continued devotion in a single lyric. |
| 7 | “Nāgara-Nārāyaṇa” | “Krishna as the Gallant or Lover of Radha” | Krishna does not appear at the expected moonrise. Radha’s anguish intensifies. In four songs, she imagines him with rivals and laments to nature and the god of love. |
| 8 | “Vilakṣa-Laksmīpati” | “Krishna as the Lord of Lakṣmī, Who Is Surprised or Bewildered” | At dawn, Krishna arrives. But Radha, enraged by his absence, rebukes him and accuses him of unfaithfulness. |
| 9 | “Mugdha-Mukunda” | “Krishna Who Was Enchanted” | Radha’s heart softens. Her sakhi encourages her to receive Krishna as he returns. One lyric expresses this shift in mood. |
| 10 | “Caturbhuja” | “The Four-Armed One” | Evening is falling. Radha’s anger begins to ease. When Krishna approaches, he appeals to her with affectionate praise and pleads with her to be kind to him. |
| 11 | “Sānanda-Gōvinda” | “Krishna Who Is Full of Joy” | The lovers retreat to a bower, assisted by Radha’s friends. Joy and intimate union are depicted through three songs. |
| 12 | “Suprīta-Pītāmbara” | “Krishna in His Yellow Garments Who Is Wholly Pleased” | The final canto celebrates their passionate union. The following morning, Krishna restores Radha’s ornaments and brushes back her hair. The poem closes with the poet’s own spiritual affirmation. |
Cultural and religious significance
The religious drama of the worshipper’s yearning for god is expressed through the idiom of human courtship and love. The Gitagovinda is the earliest-known poem dealing with the theme of the divine lovers, Radha and Krishna, and in it Radha is treated as the mistress, not as the wife, of Krishna.
The poem achieved wide circulation across the Indian subcontinent soon after its composition in the 12th century. Over time, it spread from Orissa and Bengal to Gujarat, Rajasthan, Kerala, the Hindu kingdom of Nepal, and northeast India. More than 40 commentaries were composed on the poem across various regions over the course of several centuries following its composition. It inspired more than a dozen poetic imitations and was frequently cited in Sanskrit anthologies.
Its verses were popular with Chaitanya, the 14th–15th-century Bengali saint, and continue to be sung even today at bhajanas and kīrtanas (gatherings for devotion through song) throughout India, particularly at the temple of Jagannatha at Puri in Odisha state. The Gitagovinda was also the inspiration for many beautiful miniature paintings of the Rajasthani and Pahari schools in the 17th and 18th centuries.