Historiated Bibles and legendary histories

Judaism entered a new phase in 330 bce, when Alexander the Great completed his conquest of the Middle East. The dominant features of the Hellenistic Age, which began with Alexander’s death in 323, were an increasing cosmopolitanism and a fusion of ancient Middle Eastern and Greek cultures. These found expression in Jewish myth and legend in the composition (in Greek) of stories designed to link the Bible with general history, to correlate biblical and Greek legends, and to claim for the Hebrew patriarchs a major role in the development of the arts and sciences. It was asserted, for instance, that Abraham had taught astrology to the king of Egypt, that his sons and those of Keturah had aided Heracles against the giant Antaeus, and that Moses, blithely identified both with the semi-mythical Greek poet Musaeus and with the Egyptian Thoth, had been the teacher of Orpheus (the putative founder of one of the current mystery cults) and the inventor of navigation, architecture, and the hieroglyphic script. Leading writers in this vein were Artapanus, Eupolemus, and Cleodemus (all c. 100 bce), but their works are known to us only from stray quotations by the early Church Fathers Eusebius and St. Clement of Alexandria.

The Jews also adapted the current Greek literary fashion of retelling Homeric and other ancient legends in “modernized,” novelistic versions, well seasoned with romantic elaborations of their own traditions. A paraphrase of Genesis found among the Dead Sea Scrolls ornaments the biblical narrative with several familiar folklore motifs. Thus, when Noah is born, the house is filled with light, just as it is said elsewhere to have been at the birth of the Roman king Servius Tullius, of Buddha, and (later) of several Christian saints. When Abraham’s life is threatened, he dreams of a cedar about to be felled, an omen that is said to have presaged the deaths of the Roman emperors Domitian and Severus Alexander. (Although the parallels are of later date, they illustrate the persistence of age-old traditions.) The same trend toward fanciful elaboration of scriptural tales is manifested also in the Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs (“testaments” meaning last wills), in which the virtues and weaknesses of the sons of Jacob are illustrated by moralistic legends. There is also a lengthy paraphrase of early biblical narratives, mistakenly attributed to Philo Judaeus, the famous Alexandrian Jewish philosopher of the 1st century ce.

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

The principal monuments of Jewish literature during the Hellenistic period are the works known collectively as the Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha. The former are certain later writings excluded by Jews from the canon of the Hebrew Bible but found in the Greek Septuagint version. The latter are other late writings not included in any authorized version of the Scriptures and spuriously attributed to biblical personalities.

The Apocrypha include several Judaized versions of tales well represented in other cultures. The book of Tobit, for instance, turns largely on the widespread motifs of the “grateful dead” and the demon in the bridal chamber. The former relates how a traveller who gives burial to a dishonoured corpse is subsequently aided by a chance companion who turns out to be the spirit of the deceased. The latter tells how a succession of bridegrooms die on the nuptial night through the presence of a demon beside the bridal bed. Similarly, in Bel and the Dragon (2nd century bce) there is the equally familiar motif of fraud that is detected by the imprint of the culprit’s foot on strewn ashes; the story reappears later in the French and Celtic romance of Tristan and Iseult. In the story of Susanna and the Elders (also 2nd century bce), a charge of unchastity levelled against a beautiful woman is refuted when a clever youngster (“Daniel come to judgment”) points out discrepancies in the testimony of her accusers. This well-worn story has a close parallel in a Samaritan tale about the daughter of a high priest in the 1st century ce; the motif of the clever youngster who surpasses seasoned judges recurs later in the Infancy Gospels and in the tale of ʿAlī Khamājah in The Thousand and One Nights.

The Pseudepigrapha also contain a number of folktales that have parallels in other traditions. The Martyrdom of Isaiah (1st century ce?) tells how the prophet, fleeing from King Manasseh, hid in a tree that opened miraculously, though he eventually perished when it was sawn asunder. Similar tales are related in the Talmud and in the later Persian epic Shāh-nāmeh (c. 1000 ce).

Midrash and Haggada

Toward the end of the 1st century ce, the canon of the Hebrew Bible was formed when certain Hebrew writings were recognized as the authoritative corpus of divine revelation. The study of the Bible became an essential element of the Jewish religion, which meant that the sacred text had to be subjected to a form of interpretation that would bring out its universal significance and permanent relevance. The process, known as Midrash (“interpretation” or “investigation”), involved the spicing of homiletic discourses with elaborative legends—a pedagogic device called Haggada (“Storytelling”). Originally transmitted orally, the legends were eventually committed to writing as part of the Talmud (the authoritative compendium of Oral Law and commentary on it), as well as in later compilations geared to particular books or sections of the Hebrew Bible, to scriptural lessons read in the services of the synagogue, or to specific biblical characters or moral themes.

The range of Haggada is virtually inexhaustible; a few representative examples must suffice. With regard to biblical characters, both Moses and David were born circumcised; Cain had a twin sister; Abraham will sit at the gate of hell to reproach the damned on Judgment Day; Aaron once locked the angel of death in the tabernacle; Solomon understood the language of animals; King Hiram, who supplied materials for the Temple, entered paradise alive; and the flesh of Leviathan will feed the righteous in the world to come.

In such fanciful elaborations of Scriptures, Haggada does not disdain to draw on Classical tales from ancient Greece and Rome. The men of Sodom, it is said, subjected itinerant strangers to the ordeal of Procrustes’ bed; the earth opened to rescue newborn Hebrew males from the pharaoh, as it did for Amphiaraus, the prophet of Argos, when he fled from Periclymenus after the attack on Thebes; Moses spoke at birth, as did Apollo; Solomon’s ring, cast into the river, was retrieved from a fish that had swallowed it, as was that of Polycrates, the tyrant of Samos, in the story told by Herodotus; the Queen of Sheba had the feet of an ass, like the child-stealing witch (Onoskelis) of Greek folklore; and no rain ever fell on the altar at Jerusalem, just as none was said to have fallen on Mt. Olympus.

There are other familiar motifs. Moses qualifies as a husband for Zipporah by alone being able to pluck a rod from Jethro’s garden; David’s harp is played at night by the wind, like that of Aeolus; and Isaiah, like Achilles and Siegfried, has only one vulnerable spot in his body—in his case, his mouth.

Legends are developed also from fanciful interpretations of scriptural verses. Thus, Adam is said to have fallen only a few hours after his creation, because the Hebrew text of Psalms 49:12 can be literally rendered “Adam does not last the night in glory.” Lamech slays the wandering Cain—a fanciful interpretation of his boast in Genesis 4:23–24. Melchizedek is immortal, in view of Psalms 110:4: “You are a priest for ever after the order of Melchizedek.” And the first man is a hermaphrodite (this notion has analogues elsewhere), because Genesis 1:27 says of God’s creation, “Male and female he created them.”

Fables and animal stories

Midrash also uses fables paralleled in non-Jewish sources. Aesop’s fable of The Lion and the Crane is quoted by a rabbi of the 1st century ce, and the tales of The Fox in the Vineyard and of The Camel Who Got Slit Ears for Wanting Horns likewise make their appearance. Material is also drawn from medieval bestiaries (manuals on animals, real or imaginary, with symbolic or moralistic interpretations). Bears, according to the bestiaries, lack mother’s milk; hares and hyenas can change sex; only one pair of unicorns exists at a time; and there is a gigantic bird (ziz) that reaches from earth to sky.

Contribution of Haggada to Christian and Islamic legends

Several of the stories related in Haggadic literature were later adapted by Christian writers. The legend that Adam was created out of virgin soil was taken to prefigure the virgin birth of the second Adam (i.e., Jesus); while the story that the soil in question was taken from the site of the future Temple was transformed into the claim that Adam had been molded out of the dust of Calvary. Similarly, the legend that, at the dedication of the Temple, the doors swung open automatically to admit the Ark of the Covenant was transferred to the consecration of a church by St. Basil (329–379); and the Talmudic tale that the bronze Nicanor gates of the Temple had floated to Jerusalem when cast overboard during their shipment from Alexandria was applied to the doors of a sacred edifice erected in honour of St. Giles (fl. 7th century).

Nor was it only the Christians who absorbed Haggadic legends. The Qurʾān, the sacred book of Islam, likewise incorporates a good deal of such material in its treatment of biblical characters such as Joseph, Moses, David, and Solomon.