Historical background
Although there are isolated examples of caring for and treating disabled individuals in ancient Greece and Rome, early societies typically shunned people who differed from the norm. During the Middle Ages the church became the first institution to provide care for physically or mentally impaired people, but the development of techniques associated with special education did not emerge until the Renaissance, with its emphasis on human dignity. In the mid-1500s Pedro Ponce de León succeeded in teaching deaf pupils in Spain to speak, read, and write; it is assumed that his methods were followed by Juan Pablo Bonet, who in 1620 published the first book on the subject. This gave rise to a wider European interest in the education of deaf individuals. In 17th-century England John Bulwer published an account of his experiences teaching deaf persons to speak and lip-read, and in France similar work was carried on by Charles-Michel, abbé de l’Epée (1712–89), who changed the nature of communication for deaf and hard-of-hearing individuals by developing the natural sign language they used into a systematic and conventional language for more universal use. His work was developed by Roch-Ambroise Cucurron, Abbé Sicard, and gave rise to the manual system, or silent method, of teaching people with hearing impairments. In Germany Samuel Heinicke experimented with training deaf children to speak, and in the 19th century Friedrich Moritz Hill (1805–74), a leading educator of the deaf, developed this method in relation to the concept that education must relate to the “here and now” of the child—known as the “natural method.” Thus arose the oral method of instruction that in time became an accepted practice throughout the world.
No serious attempt was made to educate or to train persons with visual impairments, however, until the late 18th century. Valentin Haüy, known as the “father and apostle of the blind,” opened the National Institution of Blind Youth (Institution Nationale des Jeunes Aveugles) in Paris in 1784, with 12 blind children as his first pupils. News of Haüy’s success in teaching these children to read soon spread to other countries. Subsequently, schools for the blind were opened in Liverpool, England (1791), London (1799), Vienna (1804), Berlin (1806), Amsterdam and Stockholm (1808), Zürich, Switzerland (1809), Boston (1829), and New York City (1831).
Scientific attempts to educate children with intellectual disabilities originated in the efforts of Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard, a French physician and otologist. In his classic book The Wild Boy of Aveyron (1807), he related his five-year effort to train and educate a boy who had been found running wild in the woods of Aveyron. Itard’s work with the boy became notable for the possibilities it raised regarding the education of persons with mental or emotional disabilities. Years later his student Edouard Séguin, who emigrated from France to the United States in 1848, devised an educational method that used physical and sensory activities to develop the mental processes. Séguin’s published works influenced Maria Montessori, an Italian pediatrician who became an educator and the innovator of a unique method of training young intellectually disabled and culturally deprived children in Rome in the 1890s and early 1900s. Her approach emphasized self-education through specially designed “didactic materials” for sensorimotor training; development of the senses was the keynote of the system.
Special education for people with disabilities became universal in developed countries by the late 20th century. Concurrent with this development was the identification of two concepts of individual differences: (1) “interindividual differences,” which compares one child with another, and (2) “intraindividual differences,” which compares the child’s abilities in one area with the child’s abilities in other areas. The grouping of children in special classes rests on the concept of interindividual differences, but the instructional procedures for each child are determined by intraindividual differences—that is, by a child’s abilities and disabilities.
Implementation of programs
Diagnostic patterns
Children with a particular kind of disability do not necessarily form a homogeneous group, so diagnosis must go beyond merely classifying the children according to their major deviation. A child with cerebral palsy, for example, has a motor handicap but may also be of superior intelligence or have a learning disability. Hence children with certain labels of impairment—cerebral palsy or deafness or blindness, for example—must be carefully assessed before they can be properly placed in a particular group.
For the gifted and the intellectually disabled, the primary criterion of identification is an individually administered intelligence (IQ) test. Children who score particularly high (IQ scores higher than 130 indicate giftedness) or low (scores below 70 indicate intellectual disability) are considered for special programs. The determination is made by psychologists who in most cases certify a child’s eligibility for such programs. In making these assessments, psychologists also consider other criteria such as school achievement, personality, and the adjustment of the child in the regular grades.
Medical specialists evaluate the needs of children who have sensory, neurological, or orthopedic disabilities. Children who have learning disabilities are assessed primarily by psychoeducational diagnosticians who, through educational and psychological diagnostic tests, determine a child’s potential for learning and achievement. Ancillary diagnoses by medical, psychological, and other personnel also help determine a child’s eligibility for special programs. Children with behavioral and emotional disabilities might be evaluated by any number of specialists, including psychiatrists, clinical psychologists, social workers, and teachers.
Patterns of instructional adaptation
The goals of special education are similar to the educational goals for ordinary children; only the techniques for attaining them are different. An effort is made, for example, to teach all children with special needs (except those unable to profit at all from school experience) to read. Children who have learning and mental disabilities require prolonged periods of intensive and more-individualized instruction; for them the learning process might include techniques to maintain interest, more active participation, and much more repetition of similar material in varied form. Children with severe sensory handicaps (such as deafness and blindness) must learn to read through other sense modalities. Deaf individuals learn to read through visual methods, while blind individuals learn to read Braille through the tactile sense.
Children who have motor handicaps require few, if any, academic adjustments. Unless they have additional problems such as learning disabilities, intellectual disabilities, or speech disorders (which are often found among the cerebral palsied), children with motor disabilities learn like other children, and they can follow the same classroom materials. Special techniques are necessary, however, to help such children adapt to their environment and to adapt the environment to their disability. Wheelchairs, modified desks, and other apparatuses aid in mobility and the manipulation of classroom materials. One of the most important aspects of the education of the orthopedically disabled is attitudinal—that is, preparing children for adapting to the world outside the classroom and maximizing their potential for leading relatively normal lives.
Children with learning disabilities and those with speech defects require highly specialized techniques, usually on an individual basis. For children with social and emotional problems, special therapeutic and clinical services may be provided. Psychotherapy and behaviour therapy by clinical psychologists, social workers, and psychiatrists are generally a part of the educational program. Academic teachers in these classes stress personality development, social adjustment, and habits of interpersonal relations. With this group of children, these factors are prerequisite to academic achievement. Academic work is, however, sometimes therapeutic in itself and is promoted as much as possible.
Grouping patterns
Special classes for children who have above-average intelligence, who have intellectual disabilities, who have visual or hearing impairments, or who have been diagnosed with other disabilities are found in many school systems throughout the world. This type of organization allows children to attend neighbourhood schools that offer specialized instruction, such as remedial classes for students who need extra help. By contrast, “residential schools” enroll special-needs children for 24 hours a day and are usually attended by those who cannot obtain services in their community. For gifted students, specialized programs offered by neighbourhood schools include advanced classes that differ from the regular curriculum (an approach known as enrichment) and grade-level advancement linked to educational achievement (an approach known as acceleration).
Increasing criticism of programs that segregate children with special needs has stirred efforts to integrate the special-needs child with other children. The World Conference on Special Needs Education: Access and Quality, held in 1994 in Salamanca, Spain, endorsed inclusive schooling on a worldwide basis. As a result of this conference, UNESCO was charged with promoting special education concerns among teachers, documenting progress in various regions and among different programs, and encouraging research in special-needs education. For the gifted, special programs of enrichment and acceleration are increasingly preferred to special classes. Resource rooms for those with sight or hearing impairments allow children to participate in regular classroom activities for part of the day. Older, educable persons with intellectual disabilities can be assigned to regular workshops, physical education classes, and other nonacademic classes. The eventual goal (beyond developing skills and imparting information) is to prepare these students for life in the larger society.
