Apart from the Adi Granth and the Dasam Granth, the main works of Sikh literature can be divided into devotional works, janam-sakhis (writings on the life of Guru Nanak), rahit-namas (manuals containing the Rahit), gur-bilas (hagiographic works concerning the 6th and 10th Gurus that stress their roles as warriors), historical works, scriptural commentaries, the contribution of Vir Singh (1872–1957), and a brief anthology consisting largely of quotations from the Sikh scriptures.
The devotional works of Bhai Gurdas (1551–1637) and Nand Lal (1633–1715) are the only texts aside from the Granths that can be recited in the gurdwaras. Their compositions are more than just devotional, including social and historical commentary. This was particularly true of the works of Bhai Gurdas, whose 40 lengthy poems, composed in Punjabi, remain popular. Their popularity is vastly greater than that of his 556 brief poems in Braj, a language little read in the Panth today. The compositions of Nand Lal, who wrote in Persian, are also not well known to members of the Panth, because of the language barrier. Nand Lal joined the retinue of Guru Gobind Singh, adopting the pen name Goya (“Eloquent”). His works were greatly admired, and such was the respect accorded to him that three rahit-namas were mistakenly attributed to him.
The principal janam-sakhis are the Bala, the Puratan, the Miharban, and the influential works of Santokh Singh (1787–1853), which were published in the first half of the 19th century. Santokh Singh’s first contribution, completed in 1823, was Gur Nanak Prakash (“The Splendour of Guru Nanak”; also known as the Nanak Prakash), which treated the life of Guru Nanak and relied principally on the Bala tradition. In 1844 he published Gur Pratap Suray (“The Glorious Light of the Gurus”; widely known as the Suraj Prakash), which covered the lives of the remaining Gurus.
The earliest of the extant rahit-namas is the Nasihat-Nama (1718–19; “Manual of Instruction”), which was erroneously attributed to Nand Lal and wrongly titled the Tanakhah-Nama (“Manual of Penances”). A much longer work dating from the middle of the 18th century and bearing witness to its Brahmanic origins is the Chaupa Singh Rahit-Nama (“The Rahit Manual of Chaupa Singh”). Another lengthy rahit-nama from later in the same century is the Prem Sumarag (“The Path of Love”). The series of rahit-namas finally ended with the publication in 1950 by the Tat Khalsa of Sikh Rahit Marayada (“Sikh Custom Concerning the Rahit”), which was, unfortunately, little more than a pamphlet and poorly produced, though it remains an influential work in contemporary Sikhism.
The gur-bilas literature produced a style of hagiography that focused on the mighty deeds of the Gurus, particularly Hargobind and Gobind Singh. Unlike the janam-sakhis, the gur-bilas emphasized the destiny of the Gurus to fight against the forces of evil and their supreme courage in this struggle. The enemy against which they fought was, of course, the Mughal Empire. Some gur-bilas also attach great importance to the story of the goddess Devi as a preparation for the founding of the Khalsa. The tradition began with the writing of Bachitar Natak, which appears in the Dasam Granth. Later works include Sukkha Singh’s Gur-Bilas Dasvin Patshahi, Koer Singh’s Gur-Bilas Patshahi 10, and Sohan’s Gur-Bilas Chhevin Patshahi. All gur-bilas predate the rise of the Tat Khalsa and, apart from Bachitar Natak, have received little attention. Their general message is, however, firmly fixed in the modern traditions of the Sikhs.
Among the many works that record the history of the Panth, four are particularly important. The first is Sainapati’s Gur Sobha (1711; “Radiance of the Guru”), which provides a general account of Guru Gobind Singh’s life as well as a description of the founding of the Khalsa. A second work, Ratan Singh Bhangu’s Panth Prakash (later termed Prachin Panth Prakash to distinguish it from Gian Singh’s work of the same name), was composed in 1809 and completed in 1841; it is notable for its description and high praise of the Khalsa. The two remaining works are Gian Singh’s Panth Prakash and his lengthy Tavarikh Guru Khalsa, a labor finally concluded in 1919. These texts, however, cannot be described as works of history in the modern sense, and the works of Ratan Singh Bhangu and Gian Singh are similar to gur-bilas in their treatment of the heroic deeds of the warrior Gurus.
Several commentaries on the Adi Granth have appeared since the rise of the Tat Khalsa. The first, Faridkot Tika, was commissioned by Raja Bikram Singh of Faridkot in response to Ernest Trumpp’s translation into English of part of the Adi Granth, which Sikhs regarded as grievously insulting. Three volumes were issued during 1905–06, and a fourth volume followed some years later. This work failed to assume an important place among Sikh exegetical works. This, however, was not the fate of the four-volume Shabadarath Sri Guru Granth Sahib Ji, published between 1936 and 1941. Although published anonymously, it was mainly the work of Teja Singh. Vir Singh published seven volumes of commentary between 1958 and 1962 but left Santhya Sri Guru Granth Sahib unfinished. Another commentator, Sahib Singh, issued the 10-volume Sri Guru Granth Sahib Darapan between 1962 and 1964.
Among the most important and influential Sikh writers and theologians was Vir Singh, a leading member of the Tat Khalsa, who produced an extraordinary range of literary works in Punjabi prose and poetry. He first won wide popularity as a writer of novels such as Sundari (1943) and Vijay Singh (1899), which dealt with subjects such as the heroism and chivalry of the Sikhs in response to the oppression of Muslim rulers and the subservience of the Hindu masses. His novels also highlighted the excellence of the Sikh religion in comparison with all that surrounded it. Although his novels had lost their appeal by the early 21st century, they were eagerly read in their own time by a large number of Sikhs and set a useful example to other writers. Later in his career Vir Singh gave up writing novels and turned to scriptural commentary. He published a series of pamphlets through his Khalsa Tract Society and in his weekly newspaper (the Khalsa Samachar) and began work on his multivolume commentary on the Adi Granth. Meanwhile, he began to write poetry in Punjabi, including many short poems and also the longer Rana Surat Singh (1905) in blank verse. As always, the background was provided by the Sikh religion. He then turned to Sri Kalgidhar Chamatkar (1935), a life of Guru Gobind Singh, followed by Sri Guru Nanak Chamatkar (1936), and later he produced Sri Asht Gur Chamatkar (1951; “The Marvel of the Eight [Other] Gurus”), complete only as far as Guru Arjan.
A final work is the polemical treatise Ham Hindu Nahin (“We Are Not Hindus”) by Kahn Singh Nabha. First issued in 1898, it was the author’s answer to a publication by a Sanatan Sikh, Thakur Das, entitled Sikh Hindu Hain (“Sikhs Are Hindus”). Ham Hindu Nahin consists of a discussion between a Sikh and a Hindu and includes sacred Sikh texts on subjects such as the Vedas, gods and goddesses, and caste, among others. The title of the work became the slogan of the Tat Khalsa, and it remained in print throughout the 20th century.
Sects and other groups
Sects
In addition to the orthodox, there are several Sikh sects, four of which are particularly important. Two sects, the Nirankaris and the Nam-Dharis, or Kuka Sikhs, emerged in northwestern Punjab during the latter part of Ranjit Singh’s reign. The Nirankaris were members of trading castes and followers of Baba Dayal, who had preached a return to the doctrine of nam simaran. With the advent of the Tat Khalsa this goal was largely achieved, and today the Nirankaris differ from orthodox Sikhs only in their recognition of a continuing line of Gurus. The Nam-Dharis also recognize a continuing line, believing that Guru Gobind Singh did not die in Nander but lived in secret until he passed the title to Balak Singh. Under the second Nam-Dhari Guru, Ram Singh, the movement’s center moved to Bhaini Sahib, where trouble with British authorities led to Ram Singh’s imprisonment in Rangoon, Burma (Yangon, Myanmar). Almost all Nam-Dharis are from the carpenter caste, and most adult male Nam-Dharis are easily recognized by their white homespun turbans, which they tie horizontally across the forehead.
The third sect, the Akhand Kirtani Jatha, emerged during the early 20th century. The members of this group are distinguished by their divergent interpretation of one of the Five Ks. Instead of accepting the kes, or uncut hair, they maintain that the command really stands for keski, which means a small turban that is normally worn under the main turban. In this group, men and women must wear this variety of turban. The group is strict in its beliefs, attaching great importance to kirtan, or the singing of hymns, and frequently devoting the whole night to the exercise. Leadership of the sect is now largely in the hands of the trading castes, though it originally comprised followers of Randhir Singh, who was a Jat.
Another group that requires women to wear turbans is the Sikh Dharma of the Western Hemisphere, founded in the United States in 1971 by Harbhajan Singh, who was always known as Yogi Bhajan. It is commonly known as the 3HO movement (Healthy Happy Holy Organization), though this is, strictly speaking, the name only of its educational branch. Most of its followers are white Americans who lay considerable emphasis on the discipline of meditation and who practice what they call kundalini Yoga. The Sikh Dharma’s relations with the orthodox Khalsa are distinctly mixed, with many other Sikhs questioning both its teachings and its economic activities. The group’s observance of the Rahit is, however, generally acknowledged to be of a very high order.
Other groups
Sikhs can be grouped not only by their sect but also by their style of dress and by the strictness with which they observe the Rahit. Contrary to common belief, not all Sikhs wear uncut hair and turbans—two groups do, and two do not. Of these four groups, three have names to distinguish them; the fourth, though unnamed, is numerous and includes many Sikhs of the diaspora.
One group, the Kes-Dhari, is composed of Sikhs who wear the kes, uncut hair, required as one of the Five Ks, and includes all those whom the popular view regards as Sikhs. Not all Kes-Dharis wear all of the Five Ks, but they will at least wear the wrist ring (the kara), and the men will have beards and wear the Sikh turban. In some cases, beards may be surreptitiously trimmed, and, instead of wearing a standard kirpan (ceremonial sword), members may carry a tiny replica measuring barely one centimeter in length, which is fastened to the comb (kangha) that holds the hair in place under the turban. All males bear the name Singh and all females the name Kaur, and all accept the Rahit to a greater or lesser degree. Many are punctilious in their acceptance of it, obeying all the regulations laid down in Sikh Rahit Marayada. Others are rather less observant, though they are usually careful not to violate the Rahit while they are in the public gaze.
The Kes-Dhari Sikhs constitute a very substantial part of the Panth, especially in the Punjab, though their exact numbers there and in the rest of the world are impossible to determine. Although the vast majority of Kes-Dharis have not been initiated into the Khalsa, in practice they are regarded (and regard themselves) as Khalsa Sikhs.
A second group comprises those who have undertaken initiation. Because this involves amrit (“nectar”), these Sikhs are known as Amrit-Dhari Sikhs. They are also, of course, Kes-Dharis. Thus, all Amrit-Dharis are Kes-Dharis, though not all Kes-Dharis are Amrit-Dharis. Here too any estimate of numbers must rely on guesswork, but it is likely that Amrit-Dharis account for 15 to 18 percent of all Sikhs.
The Sahaj-Dharis are one of two groups of Sikhs that do not wear uncut hair. They also reject other injunctions of the Rahit, and they do not adopt typical Sikh personal names. Tat Khalsa scholars once believed that sahaj-dhari meant “slow-adopter” and was used to designate Sikhs who were on the path to full Khalsa membership. It is more probable, however, that the term is derived from Guru Nanak’s use of the word sahaj, meaning the ineffable bliss of the soul’s liberation.
Sahaj-Dhari Sikhism is based partly on caste, attracting many members of relatively high castes who do not observe the Rahit for fear of losing their high-caste status. Thus, the group includes many members of the trading castes but very few Jats, the agrarian caste that constitutes more than 60 percent of the Panth. It is impossible to determine the exact number of Sahaj-Dharis, partly because many families of the trading castes have only the eldest son initiated and leave the remainder of the family free to call themselves Sikh or Hindu.
The fourth category of Sikhs consists of those who have a traditional Kes-Dhari background but who cut their hair and wear distinctive turbans only when they attend a service in their gurdwaras. Although they do not always use their formal Khalsa names, they do use Singh or Kaur. This variety of Sikh is particularly common in countries outside India. There is still no widely accepted term for them, though they are frequently called Mona Sikhs, mona meaning “shaven.” This term, however, is unsuitable because it does not clearly distinguish this group of Sikhs from the Sahaj-Dharis and because it has pejorative overtones.
Conclusion
The Sikhs understand their religion as the product of five pivotal events. The first was the teaching of Guru Nanak: his message of liberation through meditation on the divine name. The second was the arming of the Sikhs by Guru Hargobind. The third was Guru Gobind Singh’s founding of the Khalsa, its distinctive code to be observed by all who were initiated. At his death came the fourth event, the passing of the mystical Guru from its 10 human bearers to the Guru Granth Sahib. The final event took place early in the 20th century, when Sikhism underwent a profound reformation at the hands of the Tat Khalsa. Sikhs are universally proud of their distinct faith.
William Hewat McLeod The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica