Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus
Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus, landmark work by the Austrian-born British philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951), published in German (as Logisch-philosophische Abhandlung) in 1921 and in English in 1922, that articulates a sophisticated version of the metaphysical theory of logical atomism, including the “picture theory of meaning,” in a polished, austerely compressed, and logically exacting format. The Tractatus was tremendously influential in the subsequent development of analytic philosophy.
In 1911 Wittgenstein attended the University of Cambridge, where he intensively studied logic under the British philosopher Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), by then a leading figure in the Western philosophies of language, logic, and mathematics. Less than a year later, after Russell declared that he had nothing left to teach him, Wittgenstein left Cambridge to work by himself in a wooden hut that he built near a fjord in Norway. There he continued his contemplation of the underlying logical structure of language, including the relations between logically simple and complex propositions and the structural identity of simple propositions and the empirical facts or states of affairs they are taken to represent. At the start of World War I in 1914, Wittgenstein enlisted in the Austrian army. As an active soldier and later as a prisoner of war, he worked on drafts of the Tractatus, which was eventually published in English with the help of Russell, who wrote an introduction to the book. (Notably, Wittgenstein disliked Russell’s introduction, claiming that it seriously misinterpreted his philosophy.)
Even before the publication of the Tractatus, Wittgenstein’s work had influenced Russell’s own views on language, logic, and reality, which Russell summarized in a series of papers entitled “The Philosophy of Logical Atomism” (1918–19). By the word logical Russell meant to sustain the position that the underlying logical structure of language can be revealed and that such a disclosure, in turn, would show the fundamental structure of that which language is used to describe. By the word atomism Russell meant to emphasize the particulate nature of the results that his analyses and those of Wittgenstein seemed to yield.
On the linguistic level, the atoms in question are atomic propositions, the simplest statements that it is possible to make about empirical reality; and on the level of what language describes, the atoms are the atomic facts, those entirely expressible by an atomic proposition. (More complex propositions, called molecular propositions, are built of atomic propositions via logical connectives—such as or, and, and not—and the truth-value of the molecular proposition is in each case a function of the truth-values of its component atomic propositions.)
The thesis that the structure of language mirrors the structure of empirical reality implies that the meaning of an atomic proposition is the particular atomic fact to which it is isomorphic. The picture theory of meaning, as it came to be called, was adumbrated in Russell’s essays and developed in detail in by Wittgenstein in the Tractatus. Wittgenstein’s approach, however, differed from Russell’s in its insistence that, because ordinary sentences purporting to express or refer to nonempirical facts or entities—such as sentences about ethics, aesthetics, religion, and metaphysics—cannot be constructed by logical operations on atomic propositions, they are strictly speaking meaningless or nonsensical, though they may have some function other than representing the world.
Wittgenstein’s picture theory thus entails a striking paradox, because it implies that the sentences of the Tractatus itself, which deals with matters well beyond simple empirical facts (for example, the relation between language and reality), are without sense. How, then, could a reader learn anything from the Tractatus if the work literally says nothing? Wittgenstein acknowledged—indeed, embraced—the paradox but denied the predicament, asserting that the logical structure of metaphysical and other nonempirical sentences cannot be stated but can be “shown.” Although metaphysics is not strictly expressible in any language, the attempt to say metaphysical things, if done in the right way, can show what language itself cannot coherently express. Wittgenstein famously characterized the paradox in a metaphorical depiction of the Tractatus as a ladder that readers can climb to “see the world rightly” but must throw away once they have reached the top. His distinction between stating and showing, however, remains notoriously difficult, and few philosophers have claimed to fully understand it. (Indeed, some critics have expressed their doubts in a related, somewhat humorous metaphor, asserting that Wittgenstein simply cut off the branch on which he was sitting.)
The Tractatus consists of a set of seven basic propositions, listed as 1 through 7, each of which is accompanied subpropositions numbered as decimal expansions. Each subproposition serves as a comment or elaboration on the proposition or subproposition to which it is immediately related. Subproposition 1.1, for example, is a comment on proposition 1; subproposition 1.11 is a comment on subproposition 1.1; subproposition 2.01231 is a comment on subproposition 2.0123; and so on. The Tractatus famously begins with proposition 1, “The world is everything that is the case,” and ends with proposition 7, “Whereof one cannot speak, thereof one must be silent.”
