- Also called:
- liturgical year
- Key People:
- Dionysius Exiguus
Sunday
Regular Christian corporate worship on Sundays goes back to the apostolic age, but New Testament writings do not explain how the practice began. Jewish Christians probably kept the sabbath at the synagogue, then joined their Gentile fellow believers for Christian worship after the close of the sabbath at sundown, either in the evening or early Sunday morning. When the church became predominantly Gentile, Sunday remained as the customary day of worship. Assemblies for the Eucharist were common on Saturday, however, as well as on Sunday in the Eastern churches into the 5th century, and Eastern canons forbade the practice, customary in the Roman church, of fasting on the sabbath.
The term Lord’s Day, signifying the triumph of Christ in his Resurrection and the beginning of a new creation, was in use by the end of the 1st century (Revelation 1:10; Didachē 14; Ignatius of Antioch, Magnesians 9:1). Some writers referred to the sabbath as the rest promised to the people of God at the end of time and to Sunday as “the eighth day,” or beginning of a new world (Hebrews 4:4–11; Letter of Barnabas 15).
In 321 the Roman emperor Constantine decreed Sunday to be a legal holiday and forbade all trade and work other than necessary agricultural labour. Later emperors extended the prohibition to include public amusements in the theatre and circus. Church councils of the period were more concerned to enforce the obligation of Sunday worship, the earliest being the Spanish Council of Elvira (c. 300), but a synod of Laodicea (c. 381) enjoined Christians not to “Judaize” but to work on the sabbath and rest, if possible, on the Lord’s Day. The Old Testament commandment of sabbath rest received a spiritual interpretation from the Church Fathers when they applied it to Sunday—e.g., St. Augustine of Hippo held that the sabbath rest from servile work meant abstention from sin (compare Tract. in Joannis, Book III, chapter 19; Book XX, chapter 2).
A literal application of the sabbath law to Sunday became evident in conciliar canons and civil laws of the Frankish kingdoms in the 6th century, climaxed by Charlemagne’s capitulary adopted by the Council of Aachen, 789 (canon 80). Medieval legislation thereafter repeatedly sought to enforce the “holiday” of Sunday, as also of many other holy days, for the benefit of serfs and labourers.
Sabbatarian laws applied to Sunday were also continued by the Protestant reformers. The Acts of Uniformity of Edward VI in 1552 and of Elizabeth I in 1559 required all persons to attend worship on Sunday, the latter imposing a fine for neglect to do so. The Church of England’s Canons of 1604 (number 13) make similar provision. Many Puritans were strongly sabbatarian in sentiment. Some of them referred to Sunday as “the sabbath.” In the Puritan colonies of New England, the so-called Blue Laws of Sunday observance were especially severe. Today some states and cities in the United States have statutes restricting certain trades and amusements on Sunday. Church laws continue to insist upon the moral obligation to attend worship every Lord’s Day.
Advent
The Advent (from Latin adventus, “coming”) season is peculiar to the Western churches, though its original impulse probably came from the East, where it was common, after the ecumenical Council of Ephesus in 431, to devote sermons on Sundays before Christmas to the theme of the Annunciation. In Ravenna—a channel of Eastern influences upon the Western church—St. Peter Chrysologus (reigned c. 433–450) delivered such homilies (sermons). The earliest reference to a season of Advent is the institution by Bishop Perpetuus of Tours (reigned 461–490) of a fast before Christmas, beginning from St. Martin’s Day on November 11. Known as St. Martin’s Lent, the custom was extended to other Frankish churches by the Council of Mâcon in 581.
The six-week season was adopted by the church of Milan and the churches of Spain. At Rome, there is no indication of Advent before the latter half of the 6th century, when it was reduced—probably by Pope Gregory I the Great—to four weeks before Christmas. The longer Gallican season left traces in medieval service books, notably the Use of Sarum (Salisbury), extensively followed in England, with its Sunday before Advent. The coming of Christ in his Nativity was overlaid with a second theme, also stemming from Gallican churches, namely, his Second Coming at the end of time. This interweaving of the themes of two advents of Christ gives the season a peculiar tension both of penitence and of joy in expectation of the Lord who is “at hand.”
Popular piety in Advent is chiefly devoted to musical and dramatic performances based upon biblical prophecies and stories of the Nativity of Christ. In many homes and churches simple devotions are associated with an Advent evergreen wreath, in which four candles are inserted and lighted, one by one, each week, as a symbol of the coming of the “Light” of the world.