- Key People:
- Édouard Claparède
- Related Topics:
- conservation
- convergent thinking
Piaget’s observations
Through clinical observations, Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget initiated considerable study of how young children learn concepts that help them cope with their physical surroundings. As models for defining feasible change, concepts are at least as important in such contexts as they are for classification. Piaget stressed that infants must first learn to distinguish themselves from the external environment. Next they form understandings of the physical world (for example, identifying objects that fall) that allow further exploration of the world. Later in the preschool period, children grasp the concept of spatial localization—objects that are separated in space. Piaget characterized this period of learning as classifying objects only on the basis of perceptually attractive, concrete physical features (in agreement with laboratory studies of intradimensional and extradimensional shift).
He and others who used his methods reported that preschool children are apt to explain external change in terms of their own needs: a four-year-old is likely to say that a cloud moves “because the sun is in my eyes.” Among children in early primary grades, other interpretations of cause and effect might be expressed by saying a moving cloud “wants to hide the sun.” In later primary grades, volitional and passive movement usually become conceptually distinct. By adolescence, children develop an ability to deal analytically with objects apart from their immediate perceptual characteristics. This marks an understanding of the hierarchies of subclasses within more general classes—for example, a normal child of eleven applies the properties of all living things to the class called birds.
Given proper information, by the age of six many children display significant concept-forming abilities. They ordinarily have considerable linguistic competence, using (though often not being able to explain) such abstract qualifications as present and past tense. Rules of formal logic (such as “new math”) can be taught in the elementary grades. Progressive use of abstract concepts seems to reflect both maturation and learning.
The role of instruction in concept formation remains poorly understood, yet practically all cultural heritage is explicitly taught. Better knowledge of how to instruct and of the role of imitation in transmitting cultural concepts is needed. In addition, some linguists believe that language itself guides how concepts will be formed; if a language has no words for a concept, they assert, it is unlikely that a speaker of that language will think of that concept.
Aging
It is generally thought that the potential for learning new abstractions tends to decrease in old age and that in extreme cases (such as senility, severe alcoholism, or brain injury) the deficit is dramatic. Much less is known, however, about changes in conceptual ability during the active period of adult life, in part because much of the evidence is conflicting.
As gifted children age, they tend to retain superior ability in grasping new abstractions. Among more typical people, however, little correlation is found between conceptual ability evaluated in the early teens and the same ability measured 10 or more years later.
In such abstract pursuits as pure mathematics or theoretical physics, there is a tendency for creative scientists and writers to be most productive in their late 20s and early 30s, but there are many exceptions. As people get older, they acquire a wealth of concepts that they can apply to a problem, so the net change in ability is hard to predict. Deterioration in learning new concepts is likely to be more rapid past age 60, its severity varying markedly from person to person. Deterioration may be associated with illness or injury rather than with mere aging. In general, fluid intelligence (the ability to manipulate abstract concepts) decreases with age while crystallized intelligence (the use of the accumulated concepts) increases with age.
Concept formation in animals
Rats learn to enter lighted or unlighted alleys to get food, and goldfish can be taught to swim toward or away from an object. In such discrimination learning, the animal is said to associate a physical property of the stimulus with its response, and with some contingency of reward or punishment. Thus, while a dog can be trained to come when called, it need not mean that he knows his name in the same sense that a man apparently does.
Most animals show classification behaviour that seems indicative of discrimination learning. A crow will respond to the danger call of a bird of another species—but only if that call resembles the crow’s. Chimpanzees, however, which have been observed using sticks as primitive tools, behave as if they have a concept of things that extend reach. Based on considerable evidence of this sort, many are reluctant to say that animals are incapable of abstract thinking.
Most studies aimed at evidence of concept formation among laboratory animals have involved primates, although there are reports of abstract behaviour among other animals such as dogs, dolphins, pigs, and parrots. Monkeys have been taught to solve the oddity problem: presented with two objects of one kind and one of another, they can be trained to select the discrepant one. This behaviour persists even for sets of objects that have never been presented to them before. The animals behave as if they grasp the general concept of similarity, which is an abstraction rather than a simple discrimination. Animals also have been tested on the ability to learn languages. With great effort, chimpanzees have been taught to “speak” (through physical gestures) and to use correctly a very few words. A much more successful attempt was made by Beatrice and Allan Gardner to teach a chimpanzee, Washoe, the sign language used by deaf people—the gestures of this language apparently being more appropriate to the anatomic structure of chimpanzees. The chimpanzee learned to use the signs for hat, dog, food, yes, me (self), sorry, funny, go, come, and many others. Washoe’s foster son learned 68 words simply through observation, while Washoe’s companions learned to use sign language to communicate transactions and reassurance. They also taught others the concepts they had learned.
Concept formation by machine
Computers can be programmed to process information and to develop classification rules (e.g., they can play chess and make decisions about business or military problems; see artificial intelligence). Essentially, such devices are programmed to mimic the processes of human problem solving. In this sense, machines have formed concepts; but their functions remain relatively impoverished. Efficient linguistic behaviour has proved particularly difficult to produce in a machine. While many believe that human thinking can be explained mechanistically in physiological terms, scientists themselves have yet to develop concepts adequate for producing machines that can approach the full range of human talent. Machine translation of language, however, has shown some success.
Earl B. Hunt The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica