Computers also make more mundane types of fraud possible. Take the automated teller machine (ATM) through which many people now get cash. In order to access an account, a user supplies a card and personal identification number (PIN). Criminals have developed means to intercept both the data on the card’s magnetic strip as well as the user’s PIN. In turn, the information is used to create fake cards that are then used to withdraw funds from the unsuspecting individual’s account. For example, in 2002 the New York Times reported that more than 21,000 American bank accounts had been skimmed by a single group engaged in acquiring ATM information illegally. A particularly effective form of fraud has involved the use of ATMs in shopping centres and convenience stores. These machines are free-standing and not physically part of a bank. Criminals can easily set up a machine that looks like a legitimate machine; instead of dispensing money, however, the machine gathers information on users and only tells them that the machine is out of order after they have typed in their PINs. Given that ATMs are the preferred method for dispensing currency all over the world, ATM fraud has become an international problem.

Wire fraud

The international nature of cybercrime is particularly evident with wire fraud. One of the largest and best-organized wire fraud schemes was orchestrated by Vladimir Levin, a Russian programmer with a computer software firm in St. Petersburg. In 1994, with the aid of dozens of confederates, Levin began transferring some $10 million from subsidiaries of Citibank, N.A., in Argentina and Indonesia to bank accounts in San Francisco, Tel Aviv, Amsterdam, Germany, and Finland. According to Citibank, all but $400,000 was eventually recovered as Levin’s accomplices attempted to withdraw the funds. Levin himself was arrested in 1995 while in transit through London’s Heathrow Airport (at the time, Russia had no extradition treaty for cybercrime). In 1998 Levin was finally extradited to the United States, where he was sentenced to three years in jail and ordered to reimburse Citibank $240,015. Exactly how Levin obtained the necessary account names and passwords has never been disclosed, but no Citibank employee has ever been charged in connection with the case. Because a sense of security and privacy are paramount to financial institutions, the exact extent of wire fraud is difficult to ascertain. In the early 21st century, wire fraud remained a worldwide problem.

File sharing and piracy

Through the 1990s, sales of compact discs (CDs) were the major source of revenue for recording companies. Although piracy—that is, the illegal duplication of copyrighted materials—had always been a problem, especially in the Far East, the proliferation on college campuses of inexpensive personal computers capable of capturing music off CDs and sharing them over high-speed (“broadband”) Internet connections became the recording industry’s greatest nightmare. In the United States, the recording industry, represented by the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA), attacked a single file-sharing service, Napster, which from 1999 to 2001 allowed users across the Internet access to music files, stored in the data-compression format known as MP3, on other users’ computers by way of Napster’s central computer. According to the RIAA, Napster users regularly violated the copyright of recording artists, and the service had to stop. For users, the issues were not so clear-cut. At the core of the Napster case was the issue of fair use. Individuals who had purchased a CD were clearly allowed to listen to the music, whether in their home stereo, automobile sound system, or personal computer. What they did not have the right to do, argued the RIAA, was to make the CD available to thousands of others who could make a perfect digital copy of the music and create their own CDs. Users rejoined that sharing their files was a fair use of copyrighted material for which they had paid a fair price. In the end, the RIAA argued that a whole new class of cybercriminal had been born—the digital pirate—that included just about anyone who had ever shared or downloaded an MP3 file. Although the RIAA successfully shuttered Napster, a new type of file-sharing service, known as peer-to-peer (P2P) networks, sprang up. These decentralized systems do not rely on a central facilitating computer; instead, they consist of millions of users who voluntarily open their own computers to others for file sharing.

The RIAA continued to battle these file-sharing networks, demanding that ISPs turn over records of their customers who move large quantities of data over their networks, but the effects were minimal. The RIAA’s other tactic has been to push for the development of technologies to enforce the digital rights of copyright holders. So-called digital rights management (DRM) technology is an attempt to forestall piracy through technologies that will not allow consumers to share files or possess “too many” copies of a copyrighted work.

At the start of the 21st century, copyright owners began accommodating themselves with the idea of commercial digital distribution. Examples include the online sales by the iTunes Store (run by Apple Inc.) and Amazon.com of music, television shows, and movies in downloadable formats, with and without DRM restrictions. In addition, several cable and satellite television providers, many electronic game systems (Sony Corporation’s PlayStation 3 and Microsoft Corporation’s Xbox 360), and streaming services like Netflix developed “video-on-demand” services that allow customers to download movies and shows for immediate (streaming) or later playback.

File sharing brought about a fundamental reconstruction of the relationship between producers, distributors, and consumers of artistic material. In America, CD sales dropped from a high of nearly 800 million albums in 2000 to less than 150 million albums in 2014. Although the music industry sold more albums digitally than it had CDs at its peak, revenue declined by more than half since 2000. As broadband Internet connections proliferate, the motion-picture industry faces a similar problem, although the digital videodisc (DVD) came to market with encryption and various built-in attempts to avoid the problems of a video Napster. However, sites such as The Pirate Bay emerged that specialized in sharing such large files as those of movies and electronic games.