In the religions of South Asia, unlike the religions of the Western tradition, there is no historical eschatology, but there are both personal and universal eschatologies. The universal eschatology in Hinduism is best described as a mythical or “relative” eschatology and involves the Hindu creation myth and the myth of the eternal recurrence of the universe, a cosmic drama that, it is believed, can be reenacted or influenced by religious ritual. Although the Hindu eschatological tradition involves no final consummation, it is characterized by great cycles (kalpas) of rise and decline, creation and destruction. The kalpa comprises 2,000 mahayugas, which in turn are each made up of four ages, or yugas, of diminishing length. The current age is the fourth yuga, the kaliyuga, of a mahayuga and is to last 1,200 “cosmic” years (432,000 years). An age of strife and disorder, decadence, and degeneration, the kaliyuga will, according to Hinduism, be brought to a close in a great conflagration. The consummation of the age will be accomplished by Kalki, the final avatar, or incarnation, of Vishnu, and will be followed by the creation of a new age, the Krita yuga, a golden era of righteousness and peace. The yuga cycle of creation and destruction itself is part of a larger cycle involving Brahma (the personification of brahman, the Absolute reality and source of all things). This cycle, lasting the lifetime of Brahma (100 of his years), will end in an even greater conflagration that will destroy the cosmos, demons, gods, and Brahma himself. Universal destruction, however, will be followed by an age of chaos and then by the birth of a new Brahma and the creation of a new cycle of birth and death.

A cyclic view is also found in the personal or individual eschatology of Hinduism with its process of birth, death, and rebirth. Eschatological teachings concern the cycle itself and the attainment of moksha, or release from the cycle. The process is guided by karma (the doctrine that actions have consequences in this life and the next), which determines the fate of individual souls. After death, souls can be assigned to any of several heavens or hells, depending upon their accumulation of virtues and vices, before their transmigration into a new human, animal, insect, or plant body. Some souls, however, may be so irredeemably evil that they are assigned to eternal damnation; others may be assigned to redemption, or devayana (“god’s way”).

Redemption is popularly viewed as entrance into the highest heaven of the god worshiped, where the redeemed await a spiritual reflection of earthly joy. In modern Hinduism the soul that is identical with God is redeemed through a recognition of the organic wholeness that has vanished from consciousness because of the soul’s imprisonment in matter. Recognition of the true nature of one’s self (atman) then leads to identity with absolute being (brahman). Redemption lies in the accomplishment, or rather recognition, of the atman-brahman identity, for it already frees one from the chains of karma and samsara (cycle of rebirths).

Buddhism, which emerged first in India but had greater impact outside the subcontinent, is, in many ways, an ethical philosophy and a “salvationist” eschatology. Buddhist teachings are rooted in the notion that all is suffering and impermanence: the material world is nothing but illusion, and the pursuit of worldly gain will bring only suffering. These notions form the core of the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism, which include the truth of liberation from the sufferings of the world. To overcome suffering and the transitory nature of existence and gain liberation from it, the Buddha, Siddhartha Gautama, devised the Eightfold Path of ethical and purifying behaviour. The purpose of these teachings is to lead the adherent to the state of nirvana (Sanskrit: “extinction,” or “blowing out”), the release from the sufferings of the world and, especially, release from the cycle of birth and rebirth. The Buddhist’s goal is, therefore, eschatological in the sense that it concerns the final destiny, or salvation, of the individual.

There are other manifestations of eschatological, even millennial thought in Buddhism. The bodhisattvas (who vow to follow the path to become a buddha) in Mahayana Buddhism are saviour figures who postpone entrance to nirvana and return to help others attain that state. The Maitreya Buddha, the final Buddha, also is the focus of eschatological and millenarian thought. It is said that the Maitreya will eventually descend from his place in heaven to realize his full potential as a buddha and preside over a kingdom of peace and enlightenment. For more orthodox Buddhists, the Maitreya is a figure who can help them when the “true teaching” is fading. For others, especially those in China, where Buddhism mixed with Daoist millennial tendencies, the Maitreya is already present or will come soon. This belief led to the formation of secret societies that would challenge the established political order in China and elsewhere.

Religions of ancient civilizations

Time is understood as both irreversible and linear in Western religions, and therefore the End is thought to occur once and for all. Accordingly, it is believed the final judgment will be followed by the creation of a new and sacred world that is eternal. Ancient Egyptian texts such as the Shipwrecked Sailor and the Conversation Between Atum and Osiris contain the earliest expressions of this kind of eschatological thought and present a highly developed sense of the idea of the final judgment of the dead. Ancient Greek and Roman eschatological views depict a shadow life for the individual departed soul in Hades and also express the concept of the cyclic destruction and renewal of the world. (See Egyptian religion.)