history of Transcaucasia
history of Transcaucasia, history of the region from prehistoric times to the present.
Food-gathering cultures of Mesolithic type, as represented by discoveries near Nalchik (Russia) in the central Caucasus, continued in this region until quite late. They were replaced in the later part of the 3rd millennium bc by the Kuban culture, which left its remains in many thousands of burial mounds, or kurgans, on the steppes of Ciscaucasia. This Kuban culture, which lasted through the Late Bronze Age into Early Iron Age times, was undoubtedly stimulated by contact with the higher civilization of Mesopotamia. The grave furniture of the kurgans, as in the famous royal grave at Maykop (Russia), included metalwork of great refinement, often ornamented with animal motifs. A common weapon was the shaft-hole copper battle-ax, of a type also found in central and northern Europe. There is evidence that the distribution of this weapon resulted from a migration of horse-riding folk, the so-called Battle-Ax people, who spread Indo-European speech. Their place of origin is not certain, but it was more probably in the east than in the west of their area of spread.
A South Caucasian, or Kura-Aras, culture, again associated with rich metalwork and characterized also by tholoi (beehive-shaped tombs), cyclopean masonry (characterized by large, irregular stone blocks fitted without mortar), and burnished black pottery with incised spiral decoration, dates from the late 3rd millennium bc. Evidence of this culture has been found particularly in the kurgans of the Trialeti district in central Georgia, notably that of Beshtasheni. Comparable pottery has been found at Karaz near Erzurum (Turkey), at Geoy Tepe in Iranian Azerbaijan, in the ʾAmūq plain near Antioch in Turkey, and as far away as Khirbet Kerak in Israel.
Transcaucasia contains some fine church architecture dating from the 4th century ad onward, including some very early pendentives. Ashlar masonry was used there instead of the bricks more common in Byzantine architecture. The most extensive remains of this kind are in the ruins of the city of Ani (modern Ocaklı) in Turkey, across the border from Armenia.
Early history
The Caucasian isthmus—or, more precisely, the road that passes across it along the shores of the Caspian—is one of the great routes along which nomadic peoples have moved at various times from Central to Southwest Asia. The chief significance of the Caucasus in Asian history, therefore, is as a gateway of migration. It also plays the part of an ethnic museum, for very many of the peoples who have passed this way have left detachments in the remoter parts of the mountains, particularly in Dagestan. Like Afghanistan farther east, Caucasia, along with Armenia, has often functioned as a buffer zone between rival empires—Roman and Parthian, Byzantine and Arab or Ottoman, Persian and Russian.
The two greatest and longest-lived of the many semi-independent states of the Caucasus in classical and medieval times were eastern Georgia (called Kartli or Iberia) in the north and Armenia in the south. The culture and ethnic character of both can be traced to the period of the breakup of the Hittite empire in the 12th century bc, and both were converted to Christianity early in the 4th century ad.
Greek contact with the Caucasus region dates from the colonizing period between the 8th and the 6th centuries bc, when many settlements, such as the Milesian outpost of Dioscurias, were established on the Caucasian coasts of the Black Sea. In the mythology of the ancient Greeks, Prometheus was said to have been chained in the Caucasus Mountains, and Colchis was the setting for the Argonauts’ search for the Golden Fleece.
The conquests of Alexander the Great in the 4th century bc freed Georgia and Armenia from Persian Achaemenian suzerainty, and, despite Pompey’s imposition of Roman control in 66 bc after his defeat of Mithradates VI Eupator, the incursions of the Khazars in the 3rd century ad, and Arab occupation of Tʿbilisi (Tiflis) in the 8th century, Georgia survived to reach its golden age between the 10th and 13th centuries.
The country was overrun and devastated by the Mongols in 1234 and the following years and again by the hordes of Timur (Tamerlane) at the end of the 14th century. Thus weakened, it was on many occasions in the later Middle Ages obliged to submit to Islāmic rule—Persian hegemony in the east or Ottoman in the west. In 1783 the king of Georgia concluded an alliance with Russia in the hope of gaining protection from Islāmic expansion. Russia made increasingly importunate demands, however, and in 1801 it annexed eastern Georgia.
Eastern Transcaucasia was populated in ancient and early medieval times by Iranian speakers, nomadic Turkic tribes, and the Caucasian Albanians, who converted to Christianity in the 4th century and came under the cultural influence of the Armenians. The region became largely Islāmic after Arab incursions in the 7th century ad. Muslim khanates under Persian suzerainty dominated this frontier of Ṣafavid Iran in early modern times. After the Russo-Persian wars of the early 19th century, Russia acquired Baku, Shirvan, Ganja (Gäncä), Nakhichevan (Naxçıvan), and Yerevan. Thereafter the Azerbaijani Turks of Caucasia were separated from the majority of their linguistic and religious compatriots, who remained in Iran.
Russian penetration
Russian interest in the Caucasus began early. In ad 943 Varangian, or Russified Norse, adventurers had sailed down the Caspian from the Volga River and captured the fortress of Bärdä. Subsequently, certain marriage alliances were concluded between the Russian and Georgian royal families, and in the 17th century Caucasian rulers were on several occasions forced to ask for Russian help against their enemies. Peter I the Great was the first to take advantage of the opportunities thus afforded to take possession of Caucasian territory. He occupied Derbent in 1722 and Baku in the following year. In 1770 Russian troops for the first time crossed the Caucasus range and took possession of Kʿutʿaisi. By 1785 all of the northern region of the Caucasus was designated as a Russian province; and, as already mentioned, Georgia was absorbed in the next century.
Two large groups of tribes in the middle Caucasus then acknowledged their subjection to the Russians, the Ossetes in 1802 and the Lezgians in 1803. Mingrelia fell in 1804 and the kingdom of Imereti in 1810. By the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, Persia ceded to Russia a wide area of the khanates of the eastern Caucasus, from Länkäran northward to Derbent. Russia had little difficulty in acquiring by conquest from Persia in 1828 a stretch of the northern Armenian plateau, including the entire plain of Yerevan, and was able to take over more territory in the same area from Turkey in the following year.
The resistance of the mountain tribes, particularly of the Circassians of Abkhazia and the Lezgians of Dagestan, was more fierce and protracted. During 30 years, from 1815 to 1845, the Russians could do little more than hold these mountain peoples at bay. Some were sustained by patriotic feelings, others by religious fervour. The Circassians of the Western Caucasus were largely quelled between 1832 and 1839, but farther east in Dagestan resistance by the Muslim tribes was carried on longer. A holy war was declared by the sheikh Kasi Mullah (Ghāzī Muḥammad), and, after he was killed by the Russians, the struggle was continued by his successor Shāmil. Shāmil was finally captured in a remote fortress of Dagestan in 1859, though the main fighting had ceased four years earlier. Dagestan was completely pacified by 1864, after which almost the entire Circassian nation, numbering perhaps 400,000, preferring exile to subjection, emigrated into Ottoman territory, leaving the Western Caucasus empty and desolated.
Under tsarist rule a minority of the local peoples received some Western education and benefited from the relative prosperity and peace of the Russian Empire. Armenian, Georgian, and Azerbaijani intellectuals began to espouse nationalism and socialism, and by the turn of the 20th century revolutionary oppositions were gaining support in Tʿbilisi and Baku. Social democracy was the leading political movement among the Georgians, while more nationalist political principles, formulated by the Armenian Revolutionary Federation, dominated among the Armenians.
The Russian Empire benefited from the oil industry in Baku and conceived of its role in Caucasia as a civilizing mission. In the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–78, the Russian lines of communication in Armenia were ill-prepared, and the Turks were able to support an attempt by Circassian exiles to reoccupy their homeland. But this failed, and, by the Peace of Adrianople, Russia succeeded in adding to its Transcaucasian territories the districts of Kars, Batumi, and Ardahan.
In 1894–96, Armenians living in the Ottoman Empire, some of whom had formed nationalist political organizations, were massacred by Turkish troops and civilians and Kurdish tribesmen; in 1915 about 600,000 Turkish Armenians died or were killed while being forcibly deported to Syria and Mesopotamia.
After the collapse of tsarism in 1917 and the coming to power of the Bolsheviks, the Caucasians drifted toward independence. Rejecting the new communist government under Lenin, Transcaucasia declared itself independent in April 1918, but after a month three separate republics—Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia—were proclaimed. After the communist victory in the Russian civil war, the Red Army was employed to establish Soviet power in the Transcaucasian republics.
Postrevolutionary period
Under the Soviet system Transcaucasia was administered until 1936 as a single unit, the Transcaucasian Soviet Federated Socialist Republic. Under the new Soviet constitution of that year, it was divided into the three union republics of Armenia, Azerbaijan, and Georgia. Smaller regions, such as Abkhazia, Ajaria, and Ossetia, were administered as autonomous Soviet socialist republics or as oblasti (provinces).
At the extreme limit of their penetration into Russia, in the autumn of 1942, the German armies overran parts of Ciscaucasia, and, in a drive toward the oil fields, they had by the end of October of that year reached the Georgian military highway leading to Tʿbilisi. The tide turned in November, when the Germans began to pull out of Caucasia to strengthen their forces in other sectors of the Russian front.
The Northern Caucasus was composed of several Russian and autonomous non-Russian regions. As a result of their alleged collaboration with the German troops, four ethnic groups were deprived of their identity and deported to other parts of the U.S.S.R. Thus, the autonomous oblast of the Karachai was partitioned in 1943 between the Stavropol krai (region) and the Georgian S.S.R. In the same year, the Balkar part of the Kabardino-Balkar A.S.S.R. was handed over to the Georgian S.S.R., and the name Balkar was deleted from the title of the republic. Also, the Chechen-Ingush A.S.S.R. was dissolved, most of its territory becoming part of the newly established Grozny oblast. All these were subsequently restored after the death of the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin in 1953. The republics of Transcaucasia also suffered persecution for alleged expressions of nationalism under Stalin, but with the easing of political terror in the Khrushchev period they enjoyed relatively greater autonomy and were able to develop their national traditions more freely.
In the 70-odd years of Soviet rule, Transcaucasia was transformed from a largely agricultural area into an industrial and urban region. But the severe restraints on national expression and the legacy of the repressive Stalinist period led to discontent with the rule of the Communist Party. After the Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev allowed greater political expression and autonomy, popular movements for sovereignty and independence undermined Soviet authority in Armenia and Georgia; in both these regions, noncommunists came to power in 1990 after local elections. In late 1991 all three republics gained full independence as the Soviet Union itself was dissolved.
After independence, the countries of Transcaucasia experienced instability, ethnic violence, and economic decline. Georgia fought separatist movements in Abkhazia and South Ossetia, while the status of the mainly Armenian enclave of Nagorno-Karabakh in southwestern Azerbaijan was the focus of ethnic violence between Armenians and Azerbaijanis that intensified into war in 1992. By the mid-1990s, however, the region appeared to be gradually stabilizing despite the persistence of ethnic hostilities.
Ronald Grigor Suny