Logic since 1900
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The early development of logic after 1900 was based on the late 19th-century work of Gottlob Frege, Giuseppe Peano, and Georg Cantor, among others. Different lines of research were unified by a general effort to use symbolic (sometimes called mathematical, or formal) techniques. Gradually, this research led to profound changes in the very idea of what logic is.
Propositional and predicate logic
Some of the earliest developments took place in propositional logic, also called the propositional calculus. Logical connectives—conjunction (“and”), disjunction (“or”), negation, the conditional (“if…then”), and the biconditional (“if and only if”), symbolized by & (or ∙), ∨, ~, ⊃, and ≡, respectively—are used to form complex propositions from simpler ones and ultimately from propositions that cannot be further analyzed in propositional terms. The connectives are interdefinable; for example, (A & B) is equivalent to ~(~A ∨ ~B); (A ∨ B) is equivalent to ~(~A & ~B); and (A ⊃ B) is equivalent to (~A ∨ B). In 1913 the American logician Henry M. Sheffer showed that all truth-functional connectives can be defined in terms of a single connective, known as the “Sheffer stroke,” which has the force of a negated conjunction. (A negated disjunction can serve the same purpose.)
Sheffer’s result, along with most other work on propositional logic, was based on treating propositional connectives as truth-functions. A connective is truth-functional if it is possible to characterize its meaning in terms of the way in which the truth-value (true or false) of the complex sentences it is used to construct depends on the truth-values of their component expressions. Thus, (A & B) is true if and only if both A and B are true; (A ∨B) is true if and only if at least one of A and B is true; ~A is true if and only if A is false; and (A ⊃ B) is true unless A is true and B is false. These truth-functional dependencies can be represented systematically by means of diagrams known as truth tables:
Although the idea of treating propositional connectives as truth-functions was known to Frege, the philosopher who emphasized it most strongly was Ludwig Wittgenstein. Truth-functions are also used in Boolean algebra, which is basic to the design of modern integrated circuits (see above Boole and De Morgan).
Unlike propositional logic, predicate logic (or the predicate calculus) treats predicates and nouns rather than propositions as atomic units. In the predicate logic introduced by Frege, the most important symbols are the existential and universal quantifiers, (∃x) and (∀y), which are the logical counterparts of ordinary-language words like something or someone (existential quantifier) and everything or everyone (universal quantifier). The “scope” of a quantifier is indicated by a pair of parentheses following it, as in (∃x)(…) or (∀y)(…). The usual logical notation also includes the identity symbol, “=,” plus a set of predicates, conventionally capital letters beginning with F, which are used to express properties or relations. The variables within the quantifiers, usually x, y, and z, operate like anaphoric pronouns. Thus, if “R” stands for the property “... is red,” then (∃x)(Rx) means that “there is an x such that it is red” or simply “something is red.” Likewise, (∀x)(Rx) means that “for every x, it is red” or simply “everything is red.”
In the simplest application, quantifiers apply to, or “range over,” the individuals within a given group of basic objects, called the “universe of discourse.” In the logic of Frege—and later in the logic of the Principia Mathematica—quantifiers could also range over what are known as “higher-order” objects, such as sets (or classes) of individuals, properties and relations of individuals, sets of sets of individuals, properties and relations of properties and relations, and so on. Eventually, logical systems that deal only with quantification over individuals were separated from other systems and became the basic part of logic, known variously as first-order predicate logic, quantification theory, or the lower predicate calculus. Logical systems in which quantification is also allowed over higher-order entities are known as higher-order logics. This separation of first-order from higher-order logic was accomplished largely by David Hilbert and his associates in the second decade of the 20th century; it was expounded in Grundzüge der Theoretischen Logik (1928; “Basic Elements of Theoretical Logic”) by Hilbert and Wilhelm Ackermann.
First-order logic is based on certain important assumptions. One of them is that the natural-language verb to be is multiply ambiguous. It can express (1) predication, as in “Tarzan is blond,” which has the logical (symbolic) form B(t), (2) simple identity, as in “Clark Kent is (identical to) Superman,” expressed by a sentence like “c = s,” (3) existence, as in “Zeus is,” or “Zeus exists,” which has the form (∃x)(x = z), or “There is an x such that x is (identical to) Zeus,” and (4) class-inclusion, as in “The whale is a mammal,” which has the form (∀x)(W(x) ⊃ M(x)), or “For all x, if x is a whale, then x is a mammal.”
This ambiguity claim is characteristic of 20th-century logic. In contrast, no philosopher before the 19th century recognized such ambiguity, though it was generally acknowledged that verbs for being have different uses.
Principia Mathematica and its aftermath
First-order logic is not capable of expressing all the concepts and modes of reasoning used in mathematics; equinumerosity (equicardinality) and infinity, for example, cannot be expressed by its means. For this reason, the best-known work in 20th-century logic, Principia Mathematica (1910–13), by Bertrand Russell and Alfred North Whitehead, employed a version of higher-order logic. This work was intended, as discussed earlier (see above Gottlob Frege), to lay bare the logical foundations of mathematics—i.e., to show that the basic concepts and modes of reasoning used in mathematics are definable in logical terms. Following Frege, Russell and Whitehead proposed to define the number of a class as the class of classes equinumerous with it. This definition was calculated to imply, among other things, all the usual axioms of arithmetic, including the Peano Postulates, which govern the structure of natural numbers. The reduction of arithmetic to logic was taken to entail the reduction of all mathematics to logic, since the arithmetization of analysis in the 19th century had resulted in the reduction of most of the rest of mathematics to arithmetic. Russell and Whitehead, however, went beyond arithmetic by reconstructing in their system a fair amount of set theory as it then existed.
The system devised by Frege was shown by Russell to contain a contradiction, which came to be known as Russell’s paradox. Russell pointed out that Frege’s assumptions implied the existence of the set of all sets that are not members of themselves (S). If a set is a member of S, then it is not, and if it is not a member of S, then it is. In order to avoid contradictions of this kind, Russell introduced the notion of a “logical type.” The basic idea is that a set S of a certain logical type T can contain as members only entities of a type lower than T. This idea was implemented in what was later known as the “simple” theory of types.
Russell and Whitehead nevertheless thought that paradoxes of a broader kind resulted from the vicious circle that arises when an object is defined by means of quantifiers whose values include the defined object itself. Russell’s paradox itself incorporates such a self-referring, or “impredicative,” definition; the injunction to avoid them was called by Russell the “vicious circle principle.” It was implemented by Russell and Whitehead by further complicating the type-structure of higher-order objects, resulting in what came to be known as the “ramified” theory of types. In addition, in order to show that all of the usual mathematics can be derived in their system, Russell and Whitehead were forced to introduce a special assumption, called the axiom of reducibility, that implies a partial collapse of the ramified hierarchy.
Although Principia Mathematica was an impressive achievement, it did not satisfy everybody. This was partly because of the admittedly ad hoc nature of some features of the ramified theory of types but also and more fundamentally because of the fact that the system was based on an incomplete understanding of higher-order logic—or, as it has also been expressed, an incomplete understanding of the meanings of notions such as “class” and “concept.”
In the 1920s the young English logician and philosopher Frank Ramsey showed how the system of Principia Mathematica could be revised by taking a purely extensional view of higher-order objects such as properties, relations, and classes—that is, by defining purely in terms of the objects to which they apply or the objects they contain. The paradoxes of the vicious-circle type are automatically avoided, and the entire ramified hierarchy becomes dispensable, including the axiom of reducibility. Russell and Whitehead made some changes along these lines in the second edition of their Principia but did not fully carry out the new approach.
Ramsey pointed out two ways in which quantification over classes (and higher-order quantification generally) can be understood. On the one hand, “all classes” can mean all extensionally possible classes, or classes definable in terms of their members—typically all subclasses of a given class. But it can also mean all classes of a certain kind, usually all classes definable in a given language. This distinction was first formalized and studied in 1950 by the American logician Leon Henkin, who called the first interpretation “standard” and the second one “nonstandard.” The distinction between standard and nonstandard interpretations of higher-order quantifiers was an important watershed in the foundations of logic and mathematics.
Even setting aside the ramified theory of types, it is an interesting question how far purely impredicative methods—involving the construction of entities of a certain logical type from entities of the same or higher logical type—can reach in logic. It has been studied by the American logician Solomon Feferman, among others.