mind-body dualism
mind-body dualism, in its original and most radical formulation, the philosophical view that mind and body (or matter) are fundamentally distinct kinds of substances or natures. That version, now often called substance dualism, implies that mind and body not only differ in meaning but refer to different kinds of entities. Thus, a mind-body (substance) dualist would oppose any theory that identifies mind with the brain, conceived as a physical mechanism.
A brief treatment of mind-body dualism follows. For fuller discussion, see Philosophy of mind: Dualism; and Metaphysics: Mind and body.
The modern problem of the relationship of mind to body stems from the thought of the 17th-century French philosopher and mathematician René Descartes, who gave dualism its classical formulation. Beginning from his famous dictum cogito, ergo sum (Latin: “I think, therefore I am”), Descartes developed a theory of mind as an immaterial, nonextended substance that engages in various activities or undergoes various states such as rational thought, imagining, feeling (sensation), and willing. Matter, or extended substance, conforms to the laws of physics in mechanistic fashion, with the important exception of the human body, which Descartes believed is causally affected by the human mind and which causally produces certain mental events. For example, willing the arm to be raised causes it to be raised, whereas being hit by a hammer on the finger causes the mind to feel pain. This part of Descartes’s dualistic theory, known as interactionism, raises one of the chief problems faced by Descartes and his followers: the question of how this causal interaction is possible.
This problem gave rise to other varieties of substance dualism, such as occasionalism and some forms of parallelism that do not require direct causal interaction. Occasionalism maintains that apparent links between mental and physical events are the result of God’s constant causal action. Parallelism also rejects causal interaction but without constant divine intervention. Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz, a 17th-century German rationalist and mathematician, saw mind and body as two perfectly correlated series, synchronized like two clocks at their origin by God in a preestablished harmony.
Another substance-dualistic theory is epiphenomenalism, which agrees with other theories in holding that mental events and physical events are different. The epiphenomenalist holds, however, that the only true causes are physical events, with mind as a by-product. Mental events seem causally efficacious because certain mental events occur just before certain physical events and because humans are ignorant of the events in the brain that truly cause them.
Among other difficulties faced by substance dualism is the inherent obscurity in conceiving of what sort of thing a mental substance—an immaterial, thinking “stuff”—might be. Such criticisms have led some thinkers to abandon substance dualism in favour of various monistic theories, including the identity theory, according to which every mental state or event is identical to some physical (i.e., brain) state or event, and the dual-aspect theory, also called neutral monism, according to which mental and physical states and events constitute different aspects or properties of a single underlying substance, which is neither mental nor physical.