Mounting composition on film
Composition on film consists of a mounting operation carried out on a luminous table. Films of the text and titles and positives or negatives of the screened or unscreened photographs, depending on the printing method to be used, are arranged on a sheet of transparent plastic of the dimensions indicated on the layout, placed under the plastic sheet and lighted from beneath. The film is glued or fixed using pieces of transparent adhesive.
Conversion systems
One composition process can be converted to the other. A page composed on film, in negative, can be used for photogravure plates or for metal or engraved plates intended for letterpress printing. Contrariwise, a page composed in type can be converted to a positive or negative, direct or inverted transparency by any of a number of techniques.
The whole page, including the screened plates or photographic illustrations, can be subjected to conversion, or the text can be taken alone, leaving the positioning of illustrations until the positives or negatives of the illustrations, screened or not, according to the printing process to be used, are included in the makeup at a later stage.
Printing (press operation)
Printing in the second sense of the word—that is, press operation—is the technique by which ink or other coloring agent, transferred to paper or any other material, is localized on printing surfaces delimited by the composition of texts or the making of illustration material.
Color printing
Juxtaposition of colors is achieved by submitting each sheet to successive impressions by typeforms each of which prints only on areas designed to carry a single color and inked only in that color.
There are sufficient wavelengths in the three primary colors, blue, red, and green, to reconstitute all the colors of the spectrum. The color perceived from an inked impression results from the fact that the ink reflects some waves of the range of colors of the spectrum and absorbs the others—that is, prevents them from being seen. Thus, three colors of ink can reconstitute the visual effect of all the range of colors by combining them appropriately. Yellow totally absorbs all waves of color that are basically blue and reflects waves of color that are basically red and green; magenta (deep crimson) totally absorbs green and reflects red and blue; cyan (close to turquoise) absorbs red and reflects blue and green.
When two of these inks combine, each annuls in the other the capacity to reflect that one of the two primary colors that it cannot itself reflect; the eye then perceives only the one primary color that both inks reflect; for example, red, by combining yellow and magenta inks. All three inks combined no longer reflect any of the three primary colors but appear as black.
In trichromatic printing the screened plates necessary for each of the three colors of ink are prepared by selecting the colors through filters. A fourth plate is usually used for making a print in black ink to accentuate the contours and modeling in the picture, making the process quadrichromatic.
Printing colors by superposition requires the exact positioning on top of one another of the successively printed constituent parts of the picture (usually printed in this order: magenta, yellow, cyan, black). The finer the definition of the screen, the more precise this positioning must be.
Letterpress printing
Letterpress printing consists of transferring a thin film of ink from the printing surface of the typeform to that of the paper by pressing the two together.
Letterpress presses are thus made up of two principal elements, one bearing the type form, the other exerting the pressure. These elements may be either flat or cylindrical. There are three principal types of presses, according to the way these elements are combined: (1) plane to plane; (2) cylinder to plane; and (3) cylinder to cylinder. In all types of letterpress presses the printing surface must be coated with a uniform layer of ink before receiving the paper. This inking is carried out by a mechanism composed of up to 20 rollers: take-up rollers carry the paste ink from the ink supply to the distributing and sliding rollers, which operate with a longitudinal to-and-fro movement to crush and spread the ink in an even layer on a level or cylindrical metal surface and finally contact rollers that transfer the ink to the printing surface of the typeform.
The first two kinds of presses are sheet fed. The third can be either sheet fed or roll fed (web fed), depending on the model and type of work. Sheets of paper must be fed into the press in a sequence synchronized with the movement of the press. Most modern presses are equipped with an automatic feeder that functions in conjunction with the movement of the press. The feeders operate by either friction or suction. In a friction-operated feeder, the sheets of a pile of stock on a slightly slanting surface are fanned out so that each sheet projects over the one beneath in such a way that the friction of a cylinder can dispatch them individually one after another toward the feedboard of the press, where three pegs guide each into position. In a suction operation the sheets remain piled up vertically; a wheel brushes a corner of the top sheet and separates it from the others, enabling a compressed-air blower to inject a cushion of air underneath the sheet. A system of vents connected to a suction pipe lifts the paper and carries it towards the press’s feedboard. An automatic device lifts the pile of sheets continuously into place. On all letterpress presses, slight irregularities of the surface of the typeform are compensated for by packing the platen with a material soft enough to absorb the irregularities.
As the sheets leave the press, a powder is sprayed onto their surface to form a separative coating that prevents the transfer of ink from one sheet to another. An alternative in modern high-speed presses is the incorporation in the ink of a special quick-drying agent.
Platen presses
Presses that operate plane to plane are called platen presses. A vertical clamping contrivance clamps the bed, which carries the form into which the composed type is locked, and the platen, which carries the sheet of paper while it is being printed. When this clamping contrivance is open, the typeform is inked by a series of rollers that descend and then reascend, and the printed sheet is removed and a new sheet placed in position on the platen.
The pressure exerted during impression is about 40 kilograms per square centimeter (570 pounds per square inch). A platen press can reach a production speed of 5,000 sheets per hour.
Cylinder presses
In presses that operate cylinder to plane, called flatbed presses, a cylinder provides the pressure while the typeform retains its flat surface, generally in a horizontal position. Generally, too, the bed is mobile to allow the typeform, as it moves back and forth, both to pass under the rollers of the inking system and to pass under the impression cylinder around whose outer surface the sheet of paper is wrapped, attached by a set of clamps. Flatbed presses fall into various categories, depending on the cylinder’s operation.
In the stop-cylinder press, a toothed rack incorporated in the bed engages a cogwheel incorporated in the cylinder while the bed is moving forward. As it moves back again, the cogs disengage. A shallow cavity in the cylinder makes it possible for the typeform to be slid underneath. Printing speeds can reach 5,000 sheets per hour.
In the two-revolution press, the cylinder never stops revolving but is raised on its bearings as the bed moves back again in order not to touch the form. In its lowered position the cylinder’s cogwheel engages a low-toothed rack incorporated in the bed; in its raised position the cogwheel engages a parallel high-toothed rack, which enables the cylinder to continue revolving in the same direction. Printing takes place during the first revolution; during the second revolution the cylinder runs free. Printing speeds are about the same as for the stop-cylinder press. But, by avoiding the mechanical jerkiness due to the stopping of the cylinder, the two-revolution press has a much smoother, more regular, and quieter action.
On a single revolution press, the cylinder does not stop revolving but must be raised while the bed moves back. Its diameter is twice that of the two-revolution cylinder press, but one half of its surface is hollowed out in order not to touch the form. Printing, then, takes place in the first half of the cylinder’s revolution.
A perfecting press is a combination of two two-revolution presses bracketed together. It has two cylinders and a single bed bearing two different type forms. Thus, as it moves back and forth the bed prints two impressions, one for each form. The same sheet of paper is passed from one cylinder to the other and is thus printed on both sides. The padding on the second cylinder is constantly cleaned by a kerosene-coated roller to prevent a transfer from the first side of the paper to be printed. In fact, the second impression is better than the first, and the part of the job requiring a better quality is reserved for the second cylinder.
The two-color press also combines two bracketed two-revolution presses, but a small auxiliary drum is interposed between the two cylinders to ensure that a single sheet of paper presents the same side to be printed twice. The typeforms, which are designed to complement one another, are each inked with a different color.
Contrary to the general design of cylinder presses, the vertical cylinder press is composed of a vertical bed, and both bed and cylinder move vertically with a reciprocating motion, each in an opposite direction. The cylinder revolves only while it is moving up and down, which makes this kind of press similar to the stop-cylinder press.
Printing speeds exceed 5,000 sheets an hour for paper up to about 2,000 square centimeters (300 square inches).
Rotary presses
Presses that operate cylinder to cylinder, usually described as rotary presses, consist of two cylinders turning in opposite directions. The typeform is attached to the surface of one cylinder, and the impression cylinder provides the pressure.
Sheet-fed rotary presses produce the same kind of work as flatbed cylinders, but the size of paper can be slightly larger, and production speed is three times higher using the same size of paper. The inking system is much the same as in flatbed cylinder presses. In both models the sheet of paper is held to the impression cylinder by a set of clamps. On the largest models passage of the paper between the cylinders is controlled only by precise positioning and presentation of the paper.
The two-color rotary press combines two plate cylinders, each bearing a different typeform and each provided with its own inking system against a single impression system, in a so-called satellite arrangement. Thus, the same side of the same sheet of paper receives two successive impressions of two different colors in a single revolution of the impression cylinder.
The rotary perfecting press uses the same arrangement as the previous machine, but a second impression cylinder of smaller dimensions is interposed between the first impression cylinder and one of the plate cylinders. Thus, the sheet changes sides between one impression and the other and so is printed on both sides.
The two-color cylinder and flatbed press combines a rotary and a single-revolution press by using the same impression cylinder. Clamped around this cylinder, the sheet of paper first moves against the curved form on a plate cylinder inked by the first inking system; then it moves against a flat form on a mobile bed inked in another color by a second inking system.
Polychrome rotaries permit three, four, or five colors to be printed on the same sheet without handling the pile of paper. Some of these are designed on the planetary principle, using as many plate cylinders as colors, each being fed by its own inking system and grouped around a single impression cylinder. This type of machine is much more popular in North America than in Europe. Others are designed as a row of identical units each printing one color, the paper moving from one unit to another by means of a transmission drum or a conveyor contrivance.
Roll-fed rotaries are exceptionally large, with high rates of production, and are used almost exclusively for printing daily newspapers. Their principle is extremely simple; the continuous roll of paper drawn from a reel moves between a plate cylinder and an impression cylinder. In practice, the cylinders of some have a circumference twice the height of a page of newsprint. Thus, each revolution of the cylinder prints two copies of the same page. On others the circumference of the cylinders corresponds to the width of four pages of newsprint side by side; each revolution prints eight copies of the same page.
In another type, the basic unit of the rotary, called the group, is composed of a symmetrical arrangement of two plate cylinders with their impression cylinders. Within the same group the roll of paper moves from one of the plate cylinders, where it is printed on one side, to the other cylinder, where it is printed on the other side. Each revolution of the machine thus produces a group of two times eight pages of newspaper printed on both sides. Inking is effected by distributing, sliding, and contact rollers that receive ink from dozens of openings distributed across the width of the cylinder, each of which can be precisely adjusted. In each group paper is fed in by a barrel-like device with three axes for supporting the reels, which makes it possible to move over from a finished roll to a new one by a simple gluing operation and a 120° revolution. The reels weigh up to 600 kilograms (about 1,300 pounds). The rotary press is made up of a certain number of identical groups in alignment.
After printing, the roll of paper is automatically folded down the middle so that on both sides only two pages remain face to face. Moving along a triangle with rounded sides and then passing between rollers, each half roll is folded in the middle to form a newspaper. A cutting mechanism, synchronized with the action of the rotary, separates each newspaper from its neighbor.
Depending on the number of pages of the newspaper, various arrangements are possible: rolls coming from different groups can be added to by accumulation to produce two issues in a multiple of four pages. A roll half as wide as the others coming from one of the groups can be added to the middle of one or more of the usual rolls, producing two issues in multiples of four pages, plus two. Two parallel rollers, called turning bars, arranged at an angle of 45° in relation to the flow of the roll, enable the roll, after it has been printed and folded in the middle, to be folded in half again so that each of the two issues produced by the group is formed into a signature of eight pages.
For color printing, the same roll of paper moves through several groups in succession, in each of which the plate cylinders carry typeforms appropriate for each of the colors necessary.
Modern rotaries can revolve at the rate of 35,000 revolutions per hour (500 meters [1,600 feet] of paper per minute), or at a theoretical production rate of 140,000 newspapers an hour in two issues from the final group. In practice, the average rate of production is about half this figure.
At speeds such as this, inspection and safety precautions are more reliably carried out by electromagnetic devices based primarily on the use of photoelectric cells; for example, a series of cells on the track, over which a roll of paper moves, react to tearing by stopping the machine.
In color printing, photoelectric cells ensure matching by selectively picking up the guide marks printed in each color as they go by and by reacting to any irregularities in the distance between these guide marks. Any error is automatically corrected by modifying either the speed of one group or the pressure of the rollers that control the tension of the paper between one group and the next. Matching up across the width of the paper is controlled by cells that react to any lateral digressions as the paper moves along by controlling a lateral-shifting mechanism.
Quality control of color reproduction is also carried out by photoelectric cells that emit a current whose strength is proportional to the intensity of impression of the guide marks for each color. By comparing this intensity with a color scale, a computer determines the continual adjustments needed in the composition of the inks and controls the opening of valves to add pigment if the inks are too light or colorless varnish if they are too dark.
