- Related Topics:
- historiography
- seal
The private seals used in China (t’u-chang) and Japan (ingyō), commonly square and reading merely “seal of so and so” (XX chih yin), served as a confirmation of signature or a sign to be verified but have not the legal status of a signature. They are made of ivory, wood, or jade. Used by artists and collectors to mark their paintings and books, there is hardly a limit to their fanciful designs and phraseology. A man might own scores of seals, using his many sobriquets, especially those suggesting unworldly and rustic tastes. A seal is impressed in red ink—made of cinnabar in water and honey or suspended in sesame oil, hempseed oil, etc.—held ready on a pad of cotton or moss. The characters most often appear in line, but they are sometimes reserved against the inked ground.
The first record of a seal in China is from 544 bc. Actual bronze seals survive from the 5th century bc, and the practice of sealing must be some centuries older. The emblematic characters cast on Shang dynasty bronze vessels (13th–11th century bc) imply the use of something like a seal for impressing on the mold. The royal seal and other seals of high office were termed hsi; other seals of rank and appointment were chang. The imperial hsi (called pao beginning in the T’ang period, ad 618–907) was traditionally large and square, made of jade or ivory. The most famous one belonged to Shih Huang-ti (ruled 221–209/210 bc); it had as its knob a one-horned dragon and is fabled to have been handed down to the present day.
The official and, no doubt, the personal use of seals began in Japan with the copying of Chinese institutions in the 7th century ad. Both in China and in Japan modern seals generally employ the “small seal” character (chuan shu), the “great seal” character being reserved in the past for the ruler and high officers. To the historian the importance of the Far Eastern seals is greater in the earlier periods, and in China they yield more information than in Japan. Thus, seals recovered archaeologically throw light on government appointments made in the Han period, particularly in the reign of Han Wu Ti (140–87 bc), when they were tokens of rank given to internal officials and some external client rulers. Gold seals of the “King of the Han Wei-nu county,” found near Fukuoka in 1784, and that of the “King of Tien” excavated near K’un-ming in 1956 have implications of this kind. But in post-Han times the seals have served little if at all as primary historical documents, and in writings on East Asia it is chiefly the art historian who appeals to their testimony in authenticating paintings and calligraphies.
William Watson
