The essence of speech and its artificial re-creation has fascinated scientists for several centuries. Although some of the earlier speaking machines represented simple circus tricks or plain fraud, an Austrian amateur phonetician, in 1791, published a book describing a pneumomechanical device for the production of artificial speech sounds.
A number of electronic speech synthesizers were constructed in various phonetic laboratories in the latter half of the 20th century. Some of these are named the “Coder,” “Voder,” and “Vocoder,” which are abbreviations for longer names (e.g., “Voder” standing for Voice Operation Demonstrator). In essence, they are electrical analogues of the human vocal tract. Appropriately arranged electric circuits produce a voicelike tone, a modulator of the harmonic components of this fundamental tone, and a hissing-noise generator to produce the sibilant and other unvoiced consonant sounds. Resonating circuits furnish the energy concentrations within certain frequency areas to simulate the characteristic formants of each speech sound. The resulting speechlike sounds are highly controllable and amazingly natural as long as they are produced as continuants. For example, it is possible to imitate the various subtypes of the hard U.S. sound for R (as in “car”) by moving a few levers or knobs. Difficulties become greater when many other attributes of fluent speech are to be imitated, such as coarticulation of adjacent sounds, fluctuating nasalization, and other segment features and transients of connected articulation. Speech synthesizers have, nevertheless, made a contribution to the study of the various physical characteristics that contribute to the perception and recognition of speech sounds.
The counterpart of speech synthesizers is the speech recognizer, a device that receives speech signals through a microphone or phono-optical device, analyzes the acoustic components, and transforms the signals into graphic symbols by typing them on paper. Modern models may incorporate computers to store some of the information that permits the device directly to type from dictation. Early models had great difficulties with the correct spelling of homophonous words (those that sound alike but differ in spelling and meaning) such as “to, too, two” or “threw, through, thru.” Human transcribers usually have no difficulty with these distinctions because they listen to major parts of the sentence to recognize each word from the context and general situation. The computerized machines developed in the 1970s, however, had to be programmed for each detailed aspect of speech recognition that people normally learn through many years of general schooling and specialized training. Moreover, the machines could be effective only for very limited vocabularies and had to be adjusted to each individual speaker.
Godfrey Edward Arnold