Basic aims and methods

Historical and literary studies

The expansion of European empires in the early 19th century and the growth of scientific methods in history and philology combined to place Oriental and other non-European studies on a new basis. Another stimulus to the new approach to history and philology was Napoleon’s expedition to Egypt, which was accompanied by scholars and scientists; it was a notable attempt to gather knowledge of a culture systematically. The discovery and editing of sacred and other texts from other cultures also had profound effects upon European thinking. A notable publishing venture was the series Sacred Books of the East, edited under the leadership of the German Orientalist and philologist Max Müller (1823–1900), which placed at the disposal of Westerners translations of the major literary sources of the non-Christian world. Earlier, Müller had published translations of the more important Vedas (Hindu sacred texts), of which the Rigveda was given a complete scholarly edition in 1861–77. Interest in these ancient Indian texts was intense among Europeans and Americans in that earlier reports had suggested that these represented a world outlook from the “dawn of humanity” and that the origin of polytheism lay in nature worship. The Vedas, however, turned out to be of a very different character. The length of human history and prehistory, as implied by evolutionary theory and the growing archaeological discoveries, precluded looking upon the Vedic hymns as anything but late; though the contents showed them to be highly artificial and complex compilations for use in a priest-dominated ritual context, they were not at that time seen as spontaneous outpourings of the human spirit. Müller himself reacted rather sharply by adopting a different theory, which expressed his philological slant—namely, that polytheism was the result of a disease of language, in which the terms for natural phenomena came to be treated as having independent and personal reality: nomina (“names”) became numina (“spirits”). The theory was in vogue for a time but was later replaced by more realistic insights drawn from anthropology. Furthermore, study of the greater part of the corpus of Indian sacred writings, including those in vernacular languages (especially Tamil), gradually modified the preoccupation with the earliest texts—the Vedic hymns and the Upanishads (philosophical treatises).

Throughout the development of the study of non-European languages there was a supposition that a non-Christian equivalent of the Bible could be found, a sacred writing that would thus provide the authoritative key to the beliefs, practices, and institutions of the religion under consideration. Gradually, however, it became apparent that sacred scriptures play very different roles in different religious cultures. Somewhat later in developing were studies of the Buddhist canon in Pali (an ancient Indian language), which, through the work of such scholars as the English Orientalist T.W. Rhys Davids (1843–1922) and of the Pali Text Society, which he founded, had a remarkable impact in revealing to the West the full range of Theravadin (southern Buddhist) religious literature. It tended to make Western scholars look upon the Theravada as the earlier, “purer” form of Buddhism. The editing of early Mahayana (“Greater Vehicle,” or northern Buddhist) texts and the recognition of the different strata in the Pali canon have modified this view. Buddhist studies were enhanced by the growth of Tibetan, Chinese, and Japanese studies. Some of the more important modern scholars of Zen Buddhism (a Mahayana sect) have been Japanese, notably the philosopher D.T. Suzuki (1870–1966), sometimes called the apostle of Zen Buddhism to America, whose editions and interpretations have been widely influential.

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The productivity of the study of religious literature of the late 19th century was immense, for it was not confined to the foregoing literary and archaeological activities but to the investigation of the Chinese Classics and the roots of Chinese civilization as well. Thus, by the early 20th century, Western scholars were in a position to study the main range of non-Western literary cultures. The wave of interest in these texts and the freeing of their dissemination from some of their traditional constraints (e.g., the restriction of Vedic revelation to the upper classes of the Indian caste system) contributed to the revival of other religious cultures—notably Hinduism and Buddhism, under the stimulus of the Western challenge. Modern scholarship thus provided the basis for a new self-understanding among such religious traditions.

Meanwhile, the texts of Zoroastrianism, an Iranian religion originating in the 6th century bce, were being discovered and edited (from 1850 onward). The disentangling of different layers of varying antiquity indicated the complex ways in which the religion of Zoroaster had developed.

During the latter part of the 19th and early part of the 20th century, there was a remarkable flowering of ancient Middle Eastern studies. Archaeology contributed to the unravelling of non-Jewish and Jewish religious history. The discovery of the Epic of Gilgamesh, a major work of Mesopotamian religious literature, and other materials brought a whole new perspective to the development of ideas in Mesopotamia, and in Egypt archaeological and papyrological studies brought to light the famous and revealing Egyptian funerary text, the Book of the Dead. These various ancient Middle Eastern discoveries have thrown light on the evolution of Judaism, and Semitic studies have likewise illuminated the origins and background of Islam. Furthermore, classical and European studies assembled data about the pre-Christian religions of the West so that scholars might gain a more detailed and scientific understanding of them. Compilations such as the Corpus Inscriptionum Graecorum and the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, assembled in the 19th century, and the publication of Germanic, Celtic, and Scandinavian texts provided the tools for a reappraisal of these older traditions. Throughout the period intense researches into the composition and milieu of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) and the New Testament reflected a new and “scientific” spirit of enquiry—which was, however, not without its controversial elements, sometimes because of the intimate tie between religious positions and evaluations of the Bible and sometimes because of the application of speculative patterns in the history of (non-Christian) religions to the New Testament. Meanwhile, the assemblage of materials extended forward into Christian history through the application of classical philological methods to patristic texts (the writing of the early Church Fathers) and to the corpus of Reformation writings.

Archaeological studies

The great archaeological discoveries of Heinrich Schliemann, the German excavator of Troy; the English archaeologists Arthur Evans in Crete and Sir Flinders Petrie in Egypt; the French archaeologist Jacques de Morgan in Elam; the German Orientalist Hugo Winckler in Boğazköy (Anatolia); the French archaeologists Claude Schaeffer and Charles Virolleaud in Ras Shamra (Ugarit); and other archaeologists greatly enlightened modern knowledge of the Greco-Roman and ancient Middle Eastern worlds. Biblical archaeology, culminating perhaps in the discovery of Masada, the Judaean hill fortress where the Jews made their last stand against the Romans in the revolt of 66–73 ce and that was mainly excavated in 1963, has given a new perspective to studies of the Hebrew Bible, the intertestamental period, and ancient Judaism. The spectacular discovery by the English archaeologist John Marshall and others of the Indus valley civilization pushed back knowledge of Indian prehistory to about 3500 bce and called into question the earlier theory of the primacy of Vedic culture in the formation of the Indian tradition, many features of which appear to have their first manifestation in the Indus valley cities.

Archaeology made another profound impact on the study of religion when in 1841 the discovery of prehistoric human artifacts and later finds gave clues to the magico-religious beliefs and practices of early human beings. These discoveries, notably the cave paintings in the Dordogne (southwestern France), in northern and eastern Spain, and elsewhere, gave scholars encouragement to work out the course of religious evolution from earliest times. Spectacular as prehistoric archaeology was proving to be, however, it could only yield fragments of a whole that is difficult to reconstruct. Even the famous cave paintings of Les Trois Frères, in the Dordogne, for example, which portray among other things a dancing human with antlers on his head and a stallion’s tail decorating his rear, does not yield an unambiguous interpretation: is the dancing figure a sorcerer, a priest, or what? He very likely is a priest presenting himself as a divine figure connected with animal fertility and hunting rites—but this remains as only an educated guess. Hence, it became attractive to many scholars of religion to try to supplement ancient archaeological evidence with data drawn from contemporary nonliterate peoples—i.e., to interpret the prehistoric Stone Age through present-day Stone Age cultures. This procedure has several pitfalls—partly because contemporary nonliterate peoples, often dismissed as “primitives,” are themselves the product of a long historical process and because their culture may have changed over the millennia in many and various ways.

The work of the archaeologists has not merely stimulated new thinking about the early stages of religious history but it has also been a factor in drawing attention to the roles of buildings and art objects in religion. During the present century, spectacular religious monuments of the past, such as Angkor Wat (Cambodia), Borobudur (Indonesia), Ellora and Ajanta (India), and the Acropolis (Athens), have been officially preserved for scholarly and public viewing. Though iconography (the study of content and meaning in visual arts) has been better developed among art historians, students of religion are now paying increased attention to the religious decipherment of the visual arts. By contrast, very little has been done in the sphere of music, despite the considerable role it plays in so many religions. This is a further way in which the study of texts and ideas needs to be supplemented by knowledge of the milieu in which they have their meaning.

Theories concerning the origins of religion

To draw a clear line between anthropology and sociology is difficult, and the two disciplines are divided more by tradition than by the scholarly methods they employ. Anthropology, however, has tended to be chiefly concerned with nonliterate and technologically undeveloped cultures and thus has stressed a certain range of techniques, such as the use of participant observation. Much anthropological investigation, however, has been carried out recently in more complex societies, such as in various Hindu areas of India, where there are different layers of society, ranging from an educated elite to illiterate workers who carry out the traditional menial tasks of the lowest castes and the outcastes. Because of the anthropologists’ interest in tribal and “primitive” societies, it has not been unnatural for them to try to use the data gained in the study of such societies to speculate about the genesis and functions of religion.

An early attempt to combine archaeological evidence of prehistoric peoples, on the one hand, and anthropological evidence of nonliterate peoples, on the other, was that of the English anthropologist John Lubbock (1834–1913). His book, The Origin of Civilization and the Primitive Condition of Man, outlined an evolutionary scheme, beginning with atheism (the absence of religious ideas) and continuing with fetishism, nature worship, and totemism (a system of belief involving the relationship of specific animals to clans), shamanism (a system of belief centring on the shaman, a religious personage having curative and psychic powers), anthropomorphism, monotheism (belief in one god), and, finally, ethical monotheism. Lubbock recognized a point later made by the German theologian and philosopher Rudolf Otto (1869–1937) in distinguishing between the unique holiness (separateness) of God and his ethical characteristics. Unfortunately, much of his information was unreliable, and his schematism was open to question; he foreshadowed, nevertheless, other forms of evolutionism, which were to become popular both in sociology and anthropology. The English ethnologist Sir Edward Burnett Tylor (1832–1917), who is commonly considered the father of modern anthropology, expounded, in his book Primitive Culture, the thesis that animism is the earliest and most basic religious form. Out of this evolves fetishism, belief in demons, polytheism, and, finally, monotheism, which derives from the exaltation of a great god, such as the sky god, in a polytheistic context. A somewhat similar system was advanced by Herbert Spencer (1820–1903) in his Principles of Sociology, though he stresses ancestor worship rather than animism as the basic consideration.

The classifications of religion—polytheism, henotheism (i.e., the worship of one god as supreme without necessarily excluding the possibility of other groups’ gods), and monotheism—begin from concern with gods and often imply the superiority of monotheism over other forms of belief. Naturally, the anthropologists of the 19th century were deeply influenced by the presuppositions of Western society.

The English anthropologist Robert R. Marett (1866–1943), in contrast to Tylor, viewed what he termed animatism as of basic importance. He took his clue from such ideas as mana, mulungu, orenda, and so on (concepts found in the Pacific, Africa, and America, respectively), referring to a supernatural power (a kind of supernatural “electricity”) that does not necessarily have the personal connotation of animistic entities and that becomes especially present in certain individuals, spirits, or natural objects. Marett criticized Tylor for an overly intellectual approach, as though nonliterate peoples used personal forces as explanatory hypotheses to account for dreams, natural events, and other phenomena. For Marett, nonliterate religion is “not so much thought out as danced out,” and its primary emotional attitude is not so much fear as awe (in this he is close to Otto, whom he influenced).

Another important figure in the development of theories of religion was the British folklorist Sir James Frazer (1854–1941), in whose major work, The Golden Bough, is set forth a mass of evidence to establish the thesis that human beings must have begun with magic and progressed to religion and from that to science. He owes much to Tylor but places magic in a phase anterior to belief in supernatural powers that have to be propitiated—this belief being the core of religion. Because of the realization that magical rituals do not in fact work, early humans then turn, according to Frazer, to reliance on supernatural beings outside their control, beings who need to be treated well if they are to cooperate with human purposes. With further scientific discoveries and theories, such as the mechanistic view of the operation of the universe, religious explanations gave way to scientific ones. Frazer’s scheme is reminiscent of that of the French “father of sociology,” Auguste Comte.

These and other evolutionary schemes came in for criticism, however, in the light of certain facts about the religions of nonliterate peoples. Thus, the Scottish folklorist Andrew Lang (1844–1912) discovered from anthropological reports that various nonliterate tribes believed in a high god—a creator and often legislator of the moral order. Marett and other anthropologists contended that Lang’s attempt to argue for an Urmonotheismus (primordial monotheism) was contrary both to evolutionary ideas and to the established view of the lack of sophistication and half-animal status of the so-called savage. Since Lang was more of a brilliant journalist than an anthropologist, his view was not taken with as much seriousness as it should have been.

The German Roman Catholic priest and ethnologist Wilhelm Schmidt (1868–1954), however, brought anthropological expertise to bear in a series of investigations of such nonliterate societies as those of the Tierra del Fuegians (South America), the Negrillos of Rwanda (Africa), and the Andaman Islanders (Indian Ocean). The results were assembled in his Der Ursprung der Gottesidee (“The Origin of the Idea of God”), which appeared in 12 volumes from 1912 to 1955. Not surprisingly, Schmidt and his collaborators saw in the high gods, for whose cultural existence they produced ample evidence from a wide variety of unconnected societies, a sign of a primordial monotheistic revelation that later became overlaid with other elements (this was an echo of earlier Christian theories invoking the Fall to similar effect). The interpretation is controversial, but at least Lang and Schmidt produced grounds for rejecting the earlier rather naïve theory of evolutionism.

Modern scholars do not, on the whole, accept Schmidt’s scheme. Some, such as the Italian anthropologist Raffaele Pettazzoni (1883–1959), have stressed merely that a sky god has a certain natural preeminence; others emphasize that the high god is often a deus otiosus (“idle god”)—i.e., not active in the world and hence not the recipient of a functioning cult. In any event, it is a very long jump from the premise that nonliterate tribes have high gods to the conclusion that the earliest humans were monotheists.

Others who have looked at religions from an anthropological point of view have emphasized the importance, in a number of cultures, of the mother goddess (as distinct from the male sky god). A pioneer work in this direction was that of the Swiss anthropologist and jurist Johann Jakob Bachofen (1815–87), whose Das Mutterrecht (“The Mother Right”) unravelled some puzzles in ancient law, mythology, and art in terms of a matriarchal society.

Functional and structural studies of religion

The search for a tidy account of the genesis of religion in prehistory by reference to contemporary nonliterate societies was hardly likely to yield decisive results. Thus, anthropologists became more concerned with functional and structural accounts of religion in society and relinquished the apparently futile search for origins.

Notable among these accounts was the theory of the French sociologist Émile Durkheim (1858–1917). According to Durkheim, totemism was fundamentally significant (he wrongly supposed it to be virtually universal), and in this he shared the view of some other 19th-century savants, notably Salomon Reinach (1858–1932) and Robertson Smith (1846–94), not to mention Sigmund Freud (1856–1939). Because Durkheim treated the totem as symbolic of the god, he inferred that the god is a personification of the clan. This conclusion, if generalized, suggested that all the objects of religious worship symbolize social relationships and, indeed, play an important role in the continuance of the social group.

Various forms of functionalism in anthropology—which understood social patterns and institutions in terms of their function in the larger cultural context—proved illuminating for religion, such as in the stimulus to discover interrelations between differing aspects of religion. The Polish-British anthropologist Bronisław Malinowski (1884–1942), for instance, emphasized in his work on the Trobriand Islanders (New Guinea) the close relationship between myth and ritual—a point also made emphatically by the “myth and ritual” school of the history of religions (see below Other studies and emphases). Furthermore, many anthropologists, notably Paul Radin (1883–1959), moved away from earlier categorizations of so-called primitive thought and pointed to the crucial role of creative individuals in the process of mythmaking.

A rather different approach to myths was made by the French anthropologist Claude Lévi-Strauss (1908–2009), whose rather formalistic structuralism tended to reinforce analogies between “primitive” and sophisticated thinking and also provided a new method of analyzing myths and stories. His views had wide influence, though they are by no means universally accepted by anthropologists.

Specialized studies

The impact of Western culture, including missionary Christianity, and technology upon a wide variety of nonliterate and tribal societies has had profound effects and represents a specialized area of study closely related to religious anthropology. One pioneering work is Religions of the Oppressed by the Italian anthropologist and historian of religion Vittorio Lanternari. What is striking is the way in which similar types of reaction, creating new religious movements, occur at different points across the world. There are, thus, many possibilities of a comparative treatment.

Among a number of contemporary anthropologists, including the American anthropologist Clifford Geertz (1926–2006), there is a concern, after a period of functionalism, with exploring more deeply and concretely the symbolism of cultures. The English social anthropologist E.E. Evans-Pritchard (1902–73), noted among other things for his work on the religion of Nuer people (who live in South Sudan), produced in his Theories of Primitive Religion a penetrating critique of many of the earlier anthropological stances. Though it has always been difficult to confirm theories in view of the complexity of the data, a statistical approach has been attempted—e.g., by Guy Swanson in his Birth of the Gods, which attempts to exhibit correlations between types of social arrangement and religious beliefs, such as the caste system and belief in reincarnation.

Because of the nature of the societies that typically have come under the scrutiny of anthropology, the discipline has necessarily had to come to terms with religion. In terms of the methods used, the anthropological approach is of considerable interest to historians of religion and is a corrective to overintellectual, text-based accounts of religions. Also, the present concerns for comparative studies and symbolic analysis coincide with existing concerns in the phenomenology of religion (see below History and phenomenology of religion).

Theories of stages

Auguste Comte (1798–1857) is usually considered the founder of modern sociology. His general theory hinged substantially on a particular view of religion, and this view has somewhat influenced the sociology of religion since that time. In his Cours de philosophie positive (The Positive Philosophy of Auguste Comte) Comte expounded a naturalistic positivism and sketched out the following stages in the evolution of thought. First, there is what he called the theological stage, in which events are explained by reference to supernatural beings; next, there is the metaphysical stage, in which more abstract unseen forces are invoked; finally, in the positivistic stage, people seek causes in a scientific and practical manner. To seek for scientific laws governing human morality and society is as necessary, in this view, as to search for those in physics and biology—hence Comte’s role in advocating a science of society, namely sociology. Among the leading figures in the development of sociological theories were Spencer and Durkheim (see above Anthropological approaches to the study of religion).

A rather separate tradition was created by the German economic theorist Karl Marx (1818–83). A number of Marxists, notably Vladimir I. Lenin (1870–1924) and Karl Kautsky (1854–1938), developed social interpretations of religion based on the theory of the class struggle. Whereas sociological functionalists posited the existence in a society of some religion or a substitute for it (Comte, incidentally, propounded a positivistic religion, somewhat in the spirit of the French Revolution), the Marxists implied the disappearance of religion in a classless society. Thus, in their view, religion in humanity’s primordial communist condition, at the dawn of the historical dialectic, reflects ignorance of natural causes, which are explained animistically. The formation of classes leads, through alienation, to a projection of the need for liberation from this world into the transcendental or heavenly sphere. Religion, both consciously and unconsciously, thus becomes an instrument of exploitation. In the words of the young Marx, religion is “the generalized theory of the world…, its logic in popular form.” The modern intellectualist accounts of religion, tending to ignore the rituals, experiences, and institutions but concentrating rather on the doctrines and myths, have proved something of a problem for later Marxist applications of their theory. Since the theory was a product of a rather early and unsophisticated stage of theorizing about religion, it was not adapted particularly well to deal with other cultures—hence a considerable debate in modern China on the status of Chinese religion in the light of Marxism, some holding that Marx’s critique did not, for example, fit Buddhism.

Comparative studies

One of the most influential theoreticians of the sociology of religion was the German scholar Max Weber (1864–1920). He observed that there is an apparent connection between Protestantism and the rise of capitalism, and in The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism he accounted for the connection in terms of Calvinism’s inculcating a this-worldly asceticism—which created a rational discipline and work ethic, together with a drive to accumulate savings that could be used for further investment. Weber noted, however, that such a thesis ought to be tested, and a major contribution of his thinking was his systematic exploration of other cultural traditions from a sociological point of view. He wrote influentially about Islam, Judaism, and Indian and Chinese religions and, in so doing, elaborated a set of categories, such as types of prophecy, the idea of charisma (spiritual power), routinization, and other categories, which became tools to deal with the comparative material; he was thus the real founder of comparative sociology. Because of his special interest in religion, he can also be reckoned a major figure in the comparative study of religion (though he is not usually reckoned so in most accounts of the history of religions). Though he made significant contributions to the study of religion, his judgments on Indian and other religions are not all or mostly accepted now—since he necessarily based his views on secondary sources—and some of his categorial distinctions are open to debate, such as his rather broad use of the category of prophet.

Weber’s comparative method in the scientific sociology of religion introduced an analogue to experimentation (i.e., looking at similar patterns in independent cultures with varying contextual conditions). Since the 1950s there has been considerable emphasis on statistical methods, side by side with the more theoretical discussions arising from classical sociology. Typical of the trend is the American sociologist Gerhard Lenski’s Religious Factor, which delineates the relations between religious allegiance and other factors in a large city in the United States.

Other sociological studies

An extensive literature on religious sects and similar groups has also developed. To some extent this has been influenced by the German theologian Ernst Troeltsch in his distinction between church and sect (see below Theological studies). Notable among modern investigators of sectarianism is the British scholar Bryan Wilson. Church organizations also have attempted to use the insights of sociology in the work of evangelism and other church-related activities—a use of the discipline that is sometimes called “religious sociology” to distinguish it from the more theoretical and “objective” sociology of religion.

Coordination between sociology and the history of religions is not usually very close, since the two disciplines operate as separate departments in most universities and often in different faculties. From the sociological end, Weber represents one kind of synthesis. From the history-of-religions end, the writings of the German American scholar Joachim Wach (see below The Chicago school) were quite influential. In his book Sociology of Religion he attempted to exhibit the ways in which the community institutions of religion express certain attitudes and experiences. This view was in accordance with his insistence on the practical and existential side of religion, over against the intellectualist tendency to treat the correlate of the group as being a system of beliefs.

Among the more recent theorists of the sociology of religion is the influential and eclectic American scholar Peter Berger. In The Sacred Canopy he draws on elements from Marx, Durkheim, Weber, and others, creating a lively theoretical synthesis. One problem is raised by his method, however: he espouses what he calls “methodological atheism” in his work, which appears to presuppose a view about religion. Despite Berger’s sympathy in dealing with religious phenomena, the methodological stance adopted in this book seems to imply a reductionist position—namely, one in which religious beliefs are explained by reference to basically nonreligious sentiments, sociopsychological circumstances, and other factors. In itself, this is a theory having possibilities, for the study of religion cannot rule out a priori the thesis that religion is a projection—e.g., that it rests upon an illusion—or other such theses, but the question arises as to whether or not the methods espoused in the scientific study of religion have already secretly prejudged the issue.

On the whole, modern sociology is largely geared to dealing with Western religious institutions and practices, though some notable work has been done, especially since World War II, in Asian sociology of religion. Emphasis has been placed upon the process of secularization in a number of Western sociological studies (which have had some impact on the formation of modern Christian theology), notably in The Secular City of the American theologian Harvey Cox. There are indications that the process of secularization does not occur in the same degree or occurs in a different manner in non-Western cultures.

In general, the main question of the sociology of religion concerns the effectiveness with which it can relate to other studies of religion. This question is posed in The Scientific Study of Religion, by the American sociologist J. Milton Yinger. A similar tendency is noted in the synthesis between the history and the sociology of religion in a new-style evolutionism propounded by another American scholar, Robert Bellah.

Psychological studies

Notable among investigations by psychologists was The Varieties of Religious Experience, by the American philosopher and psychologist William James (1842–1910), in which he attempted to account for experiences such as conversion through the concept of invasions from the unconscious. Because of the clarity of his style and his philosophical distinction, the work has had a lasting influence, though it is dated in a number of ways and his examples come from a relatively narrow selection of individuals, largely within the ambit of Protestant Christianity. This points to a recurring problem—that of relating individual psychology to the institutions and symbols of different cultures and traditions.

More radical, but drawing from a rather larger range of examples, was the American psychologist James H. Leuba (1868–1946). In A Psychological Study of Religion he attempted to account for mystical experience psychologically and physiologically, pointing to analogies with certain drug-induced experiences. Leuba argued forcefully for a naturalistic treatment of religion, which he considered to be necessary if religious psychology was to be looked at scientifically. Others, however, have argued that psychology is in principle neutral, neither confirming nor ruling out belief in the transcendent. Most scholars would, however, consider the problem to be a complex philosophical one, which goes beyond psychology as such.

Among those who have attempted a fairly detailed classification of mystical experience, but not necessarily from a scientific-psychological point of view, mention should be made of the English scholar Evelyn Underhill (1875–1941), drawing on examples from the Jewish, Christian, and Islamic traditions. Recently, systematic explorations (taking into account Eastern mysticism as well) have been undertaken. Rudolf Otto was important in elucidating the nature of numinous experience, and there has also been a certain amount of scholarly work performed in the description and classification of types of shamanism, spirit possession, and similar phenomena.

Psychoanalytical studies

More influential than James and Leuba and others in that tradition were the psychoanalysts. Freud gave explanations of the genesis of religion in various of his writings. In Totem and Taboo he applied the idea of the Oedipus complex (involving unresolved sexual feelings of, for example, a son toward his mother and hostility toward his father) and postulated its emergence in the primordial stage of human development. This stage he conceived to be one in which there were small groups, each dominated by a father. According to Freud’s reconstruction of primordial society, the father is displaced by a son (probably violently), and further attempts to displace the new leader bring about a truce in which incest taboos (proscriptions against intrafamily sexual relations) are formed. The slaying of a suitable animal, symbolic of the deposed and dead father, connected totemism with taboo. In Moses and Monotheism Freud reconstructed biblical history in accord with his general theory, but biblical scholars and historians would not accept his account since it was in opposition to the point of view of the accepted criteria of historical evidence. His ideas were also developed in The Future of an Illusion. Freud’s view of the idea of God as being a version of the father image and his thesis that religious belief is at bottom infantile and neurotic do not depend upon the speculative accounts of prehistory and biblical history with which Freud dressed up his version of the origin and nature of religion. The theory can still stand as an account of the way in which religion operates in individual psychology, though of course it has also attracted criticism on grounds other than historical ones (e.g., Buddhism does not have a father figure to worship).

A considerable literature has developed around the relationship of psychoanalysis and religion. Some argue, despite the atheistic mood of Freud’s writing and his critique of religious belief, that the main theory is compatible with faith—on the grounds, for instance, that the theory describes certain mechanisms operative in people’s religious psychology that represent modes in which people respond to the challenge of religious truth. Even if this position can be sustained, it is clear, nevertheless, that acceptance of Freudian insights makes a considerable difference to the way in which religious experience and behaviour are viewed. Questions have arisen about the range of applicability of Freud’s ideas—e.g., whether or not his theories apply outside the Western milieu, such as in Theravada Buddhism, which does not possess a father figure or worship a god. Various attempts have been made to test Freud’s theory of religion empirically, but the results have been ambiguous.

The Swiss psychoanalyst Carl Jung (1875–1961) adopted a very different posture, one that was more sympathetic to religion and more concerned with a positive appreciation of religious symbolism. Jung considered the question of the existence of God to be unanswerable by the psychologist and adopted a kind of agnosticism. Yet he considered the spiritual realm to possess a psychological reality that cannot be explained away, and certainly not in the manner suggested by Freud. Jung postulated, in addition to the personal unconscious (roughly as in Freud), the collective unconscious, which is the repository of human experience and which contains “archetypes” (i.e., basic images that are universal in that they recur in independent cultures). The irruption of these images from the unconscious into the realm of consciousness he viewed as the basis of religious experience and often of artistic creativity. Religion can thus help people, who stand in need of the mysterious and symbolic, in the process of individuation—of becoming individual selves. Some of Jung’s writings have been devoted to elucidating some of the archetypal symbols, and his work in comparative mythology, the history of alchemy, and other similar areas of concern has proved greatly influential in stimulating the investigations of other interested scholars. Thus, the Eranos circle, a group of scholars meeting around the leadership of Jung, contributed considerably to the history of religions. Associated with this circle of scholars have been Mircea Eliade, the eminent Romanian-French historian of religion, and the Hungarian-Swiss historian of religion Károly Kerényi (1897–1973). This movement has been one of the main factors in the modern revival of interest in the analysis of myth.

Among other psychoanalytic interpreters of religion, the American scholar Erich Fromm (1900–80) modified Freudian theory and produced a more complex account of the functions of religion. Part of the modification is viewing the Oedipus complex as based not so much on sexuality as on a “much more profound desire”—namely, the childish desire to remain attached to protecting figures. The right religion, in Fromm’s estimation, can, in principle, foster an individual’s highest potentialities, but religion in practice tends to relapse into being neurotic. Authoritarian religion, according to Freud, is dysfunctional and alienates human beings from themselves.

Other studies

Apart from Jung’s work, there have been various attempts to relate psychoanalytic theory to comparative material. Thus, the English anthropologist Meyer Fortes, in his Oedipus and Job in West African Religion, combined elements from Freud and Durkheim, and G.M. Carstairs (a British psychologist), in The Twice Born, investigated in depth the inhabitants of an Indian town from a psychoanalytic point of view and with special reference to their religious beliefs and practices. Among the more systematic attempts to evaluate the evidences of the various theories is Religious Behaviour, by Michael Argyle, another British psychologist.

A certain amount of empirical work in relation to the effects of meditation and mystical experience—and also in relation to drug-induced “higher” states of consciousness—has also been carried on. Investigation of religious responses as correlated with various personality types is another area of enquiry; and developmental psychology of religion, largely under the influence of the French psychologist Jean Piaget (1896–1980), has played a prominent part in educational theory in the teaching of religion. Most scholars agree, however, that more needs to be done to make results in the psychology of religion more precise, and also, for reasons that are unclear, very few people recently have concerned themselves with the field, which thus is in a state of suspension after a flurry of activity in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.

The concerns of the philosophy of religion

The scope of the philosophy of religion has changed somewhat in the last century and a half—that is, in the time since it came to be recognized as a separate branch of philosophy. Its nature is, as is typically the case in philosophy, open to debate. Three main trends, however, can be noted: (1) the attempt to analyze and describe the nature of religion in the framework of a general view of the world; (2) the effort to defend or attack various religious positions in terms of philosophy; and (3) the attempt to analyze religious language. Philosophical materials are also often incorporated into theologies; a modern example is the use of existentialism in the theology of Rudolf Bultmann, the German New Testament scholar (see below Neo-orthodoxy and demythologization), and others, and an older example is the medieval theologian Thomas Aquinas’s use of Aristotle and of his (Aquinas’s own) insights in the service of a systematic Christian theology. The different activities mentioned above overlap substantially. The second of them is usually taken to include the exploration of natural theology (i.e., the truths about God that can be known, as it is claimed, by the aid of reasoning and insight, independently of the truths vouchsafed by revelation). Metaphysical systems (concerning the nature of reality) sometimes function as analogues to natural theology and thus provide a kind of support for a revealed religious belief system. Thus, much of philosophy of religion is concerned with questions not so much of the description of religion (historically and otherwise) as with the truth of religious claims. For this reason philosophy can easily become an adjunct of theology or of antireligious positions. To this extent, philosophy lies outside the main disciplines concerned with the descriptive study of religion. Thus, it is often difficult to disentangle descriptive problems from those bearing on the truth of the content of what is being described. Feuerbach’s “projection” theory of religion, for example, possessed a metaphysical framework, but it also included empirical claims about the nature of religion. The following brief account of philosophical trends is necessarily selective, leaning toward those philosophical theories that have a stronger content of, or relevance to, descriptive claims about religion.

Theories of Schleiermacher and Hegel

Immanuel Kant’s powerful critique of traditional natural theology appeared to rob religion of its basis in reason and to make it an adjunct to morality. But Kant’s system depended on drawing certain distinctions, such as that between pure and practical reason, which were open to challenge. One reaction that attempted to place religion in a more realistic position (i.e., as neither primarily to do with pure nor with practical reason) was that of the German theologian and philosopher Friedrich Schleiermacher (1768–1834) in his On Religion: Speeches to Its Cultured Despisers. He attempted there to carve out a separate territory for religious experience, as distinct from both science and morality. For him the central attitude in religion is “the feeling of absolute dependence.” In drawing attention to the affective and experiential side of religion, usually neglected in preceding philosophical discussions, Schleiermacher set in motion the modern concern to explore the subjective or inner aspect of religion. Schleiermacher’s main goal, however, was not the exploration of religion as such but rather the construction of a new type of theology—the “theology of consciousness.” In so doing he relegated doctrines to a secondary role, their function being to express and articulate the deliverances of religious consciousness. Thus, incidentally, it became important for New Testament historians who were influenced by Schleiermacher to penetrate the religious consciousness of Jesus—this becoming, in effect, the reputed locus of his divinity.

Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel had, as noted above, a profound effect upon the development of historical and other studies. His own system, the system of the Absolute, contained a view of the place of religion in human life. According to this notion, religion arises as the relation between humanity and the Absolute (the spiritual reality that undergirds and includes the whole universe), in which the truth is expressed symbolically, and so conveyed personally and emotionally to the individual. As the same truth is known at a higher—that is, more abstract—level in philosophy, religion is, for all its importance, ultimately inferior to philosophy. The relationship between abstract and concrete truth was, incidentally, taken up in the 19th-century Hindu renascence as a parallel to the doctrine of the Absolute—the Advaita (nondualism), the dominant expression of Hindu metaphysics—held by the 8th-century Hindu philosopher Shankara. The Hegelian account of religion was worked out in the context of the dialectical view of history, according to which opposites united in a synthesis, which in turn produced its opposite, and so on. Hegel was influential in the interpretation of Christian history: Jesus as thesis, Paul as antithesis, and early Catholicism as the synthesis, the latter becoming a new thesis that would elicit a new antithesis, Protestantism.

Hegel attracted some radical criticism, however. One such was that of the aforementioned German philosopher Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–72), whose ideas have been sketched above. Another was that of the Danish philosopher and theologian Søren Kierkegaard (1813–55), sometimes regarded as the father of modern existentialism, who reacted against the metaphysical and “rational” approach to Christianity in Hegel’s thought. Kierkegaard’s penetrating psychological insights were put to the service of philosophy and theology and threw new light on the nature of religious experience and its relation to features of the inner life of the individual, such as dread and despair. Kierkegaard’s main concern, however, was prophetic rather than descriptive. From a very different standpoint (i.e., that of liberal Protestantism), the German theologian Albrecht Ritschl (1822–89) made an apologetic defense of Christianity in his attempt to analyze theological utterances as essentially affirming value judgments.

Schleiermacher’s delineation of religious experience was complemented by attempts among the Romantics and by the German philosopher Ernst Cassirer (1874–1945) to exhibit the nature of symbolic thinking and in particular the special character of religious symbolism. This was some distance from the rationalism of Kant, though Cassirer was nevertheless influenced by the Neo-Kantian tradition.

Empiricism and pragmatism

The Hegelian school, very influential in the 19th century, entered a period of rapid decline in the early part of the 20th. The common sense and scientifically oriented philosophy of the English scholars G.E. Moore (1873–1958) and Bertrand Russell (1872–1970) introduced a period of empiricism in Britain, while William James’s pragmatism had a similar effect in America. Theologically, there was an antimetaphysical revolution during and after World War I. On the continent of Europe, the increasing influence of existentialism was hostile to the old type of metaphysics. British empiricism was expressed very strongly in logical positivism (maintaining the exclusive value of scientific knowledge and the denial of traditional metaphysical doctrines) and its linguistic aftermath. This stimulated the analysis of religious language, and the movement was complicated by the transformation in the thought of the Austrian-English philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein (1889–1951), who in his later thought was very far removed from his early, rather formalistic treatment of language.

Theoretically, the analytic attempt to exhibit the nature of religious language could have been a chiefly descriptive task, but, in fact, most analyses have occurred in the context of questions of truth. Thus, some scholars have been concerned with exhibiting how it is possible to hold religious beliefs in an empiricist framework, others with showing the meaninglessness or incoherence of belief. A landmark was the publication, in 1955, of New Essays in Philosophical Theology, edited by the English philosophers Antony Flew and Alasdair MacIntyre. Though Wittgenstein stressed the idea of “forms of life,” according to which the meaning of religious beliefs would have to be given a practical and living contextualization, little has been done to pursue the idea empirically. The discovery by the English philosopher J.L. Austin (1911–60) and others of performative uses of language stimulated some enquiry in this direction. On the whole, however, the analytic philosophy of religion has been pursued rather independently of the descriptive study and history of religion.

Modern existentialist and phenomenological studies

Since linguistic philosophy tended to be considered by its proponents to be a method or a group of methods, internal diversity within the area of concern is not surprising. Similarly, existentialism, which is less of an “-ism” than an attitude, expresses itself in a variety of ways. The most influential modern existentialists were the German philosopher Martin Heidegger (1889–1976) and the French philosopher, dramatist, and novelist Jean-Paul Sartre (1905–80); the former was especially important in the development of modern Continental theology, particularly for the use made of some of his ideas by Rudolf Bultmann.

According to Heidegger, human existence is characterized as “care.” This care is shown first in possibility: human beings make things instrumental to their concerns and so project forward. Secondly, there is human facticity, for an individual human being exists as a finite entity with particular limitations (“thrownness”). Thirdly, human beings seek to avoid the anxiety of their limitations and thus seek inauthentic existence. Authenticity, on the other hand, involves a kind of stoicism (positive attitude toward life and suffering) in which death is taken up as a possibility and human beings face the “nothing.” The structure of the human world as analyzed by Heidegger is revealed, in a sense, affectively—i.e., through care, anxiety, and other existential attitudes and feelings.

Sartre’s thought has had less direct impact on the study of religion, partly because his account of human existence represents an explicit alternative to traditional religious belief. Sartre’s analysis begins, however, from the human desire to be God, but God is, on Sartre’s analysis, a self-contradictory notion, for nothing can contain the ground of its own being. In searching for an essence, human beings fail to see the nature of their freedom, which is to go beyond definitions, whether laid down by God or by other human beings.

The French philosopher Gabriel Marcel (1889–1973) was not individualistic like Sartre (or at least the early Sartre, whose thinking was modified by Marxism). Instead, he stressed the communal character of human existence—the highest virtue being fidelity. Marcel also emphasized the mysterious (as distinguished from the empirically problematic) character of love, evil, hope, freedom, and, above all, being. His work provides a rich analysis and interpretation of the religious dimensions of human experience and thus is a philosophical basis for the study of religious experience.

The existentialist approach attempts to describe and evoke the way human beings are and thus can lay claim to be phenomenological. It is clear, however, from the divergencies among existentialists, that they contain speculative and idiosyncratic elements, and one question raised about the general applicability of their characterizations is how far they are bounded by the product of a particular mood in Western culture.

The German philosopher Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) has had, as the main exponent of phenomenology, a wide effect on the study of religion. His program of describing experience and “bracketing” the objects of experience, in the pursuit of essences of types of experience, was in part taken up in the phenomenology of religion. Husserl distinguished phenomenology from psychology, however, because, in his view, the latter concerns facts in a spatiotemporal setting, whereas phenomenology uncovers timeless essences. This aspect of Husserl’s thinking has not always or wholly been accepted by phenomenologists of religion, who have been much more oriented toward facts, though Husserl’s emphasis on essences often has tended to make religious phenomenology lean toward a static typology.

Relationship between Western and non-Western philosophy in regard to religion

Western philosophy has thus had a significant influence on the study of religion. It has also come into contact with non-Western traditions and has thus stimulated concern with the problem of the nature of religious truth in a world perspective. The most influential product of this interplay has most likely been the neo-Advaitin philosophy (a new version of Advaita, or nonduality) espoused by a number of modern Indians, such as Swami Vivekananda (1863–1902), who made a sensational appearance at the Parliament of Religions in Chicago in 1893, and the Indian philosopher Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (1888–1975). Both of these thinkers attempted to reveal the underlying unity in the great religions—a unity described from a point of view drawing on the thought of Shankara.

The U.S. philosopher William Ernest Hocking (1873–1966) pursued similar interests in the construction of a world faith that he considered might come about through the mutual modification of, and interchange between, the great religious traditions. These concerns have raised important questions about the criteria of truth between religions, the tests of whether one religion is truer than others, and the extent to which valid identifications of belief can be made between one faith and another. The various elements of the philosophical traditions of the last two centuries have thus had a bearing on religious questions, and most scholars consider that, though the philosophy of religion tends to be normative rather than descriptive, it is a necessary adjunct to descriptive studies. Philosophical insights and expertise are of significant relevance to the numerous questions of method that arise in the study of religion. (See also religion, philosophy of.)

Historical-critical studies

The major feature in the development of Christian theology during the 19th and 20th centuries was the impact of historical enquiry on the biblical sources of belief (there has also been a similar effect on Jewish and other theologies, but Christian theology has been the most influential in the development of Western culture). A pioneer in the attempt to understand the mythological elements in the New Testament was the German theologian David F. Strauss (1808–74), whose controversial Life of Jesus (published in German, 1835–36) was an attempt to sift out the historical Jesus from the overlay of myth created by the poetic imagination of the early church. Similarly, the German church historian Adolf von Harnack (1851–1930), influenced by Albrecht Ritschl, intended to penetrate the accretions of dogma attached to the historical Jesus. Such attempts were later to come under radical criticism from, among others, the Alsatian philosopher-theologian and Nobel laureate Albert Schweitzer (1875–1965) for describing the alleged Jesus of history in terms tailored to fit the presuppositions of liberal Protestantism. Thus was raised an important methodological question on how to deal with such material as the Gospels.

Important in trying to spell out principles for dealing with the material was Ernst Troeltsch (1865–1923), who argued that history has to be written in accordance with the following principles: first, the principle of criticism—i.e., the sifting of the evidences and testing of conclusions (thus historical certainty about much in the ancient witnesses to Jesus is impossible); second, the principle of analogy—i.e., in the absence of firsthand experience, scholars must treat reports of miraculous events with skepticism since people do not encounter such events in their own experiences (here Troeltsch adopted the position of David Hume); and, third, the principle of correlation—i.e., events in history are continuous with one another in a causal nexus, which rules out irruptions into the causal order by God: if he works in history, he is immanently in all of it. Troeltsch, it may be noted, had some effect on the sociology of religion—e.g., in his distinction between church-type and sect-type organizations in the history of Christianity, a distinction that has formed the starting point of considerable researches in recent times, as noted above. The implications of Troeltsch’s historical treatment of religion seemed to be relativistic. Christianity, at any rate, is viewed as a part of religious history as a whole, a point that had not always been clearly recognized by theologians. Troeltsch thereby raised some important questions about the relationship between Christianity and other religions and showed how Christian theology was beginning to take a more realistic view of religious experience and history, in distinction to the earlier rather simplistic dichotomies between special (i.e., Judeo-Christian) and general (i.e., natural) revelation.

Discoveries about ancient Middle Eastern religions were also bound to affect biblical studies, and a well-defined school developed in Germany—the Religionsgeschichtliche (“history of religions”) school—which was critical of the rather unhistorical treatment of Jesus by Ritschl and others. This school emphasized the degree to which biblical ideas were the product of the ancient cultural milieu. Important in this line of development was Albert Schweitzer (1875–1965), in whose Quest of the Historical Jesus the eschatological teachings (statements about the “last times,” or end of the world as it is now understood) of Jesus are emphasized, together with the dissimilarity of his thought world from our own.

Criticism of Harnack also came from a different direction. The French theologian Alfred Loisy (1857–1940), from a Roman Catholic point of view but taking into account the work of Protestant biblical critics, found the essence of Christianity in the faith of the developed church, which could not be found simply by trying to discover the nature of the historical Jesus. The founder, in effect, of Modernism within the Roman Catholic Church, Loisy was excommunicated, and this was a main factor in discouraging some of the livelier Roman Catholic studies of the New Testament until after the epochal ecumenical Second Vatican Council (1962–65).

Neo-orthodoxy and demythologization

Liberal Protestantism of the Harnack type was severely criticized by Karl Barth, the founder of Neo-orthodoxy; liberalism’s optimism, in any event, came under a cloud through the outbreak of World War I. Barth’s Epistle to the Romans and his later Church Dogmatics became highly influential. His theology depended in part on a distinction between the Word (i.e., God’s self-revelation as concretely manifested in Christ and in preaching) and religion. The latter, according to Barth, is the product of human culture and aspirations and is not to be identified with saving revelation (for salvation cannot come from humankind, only from God). This rather uncompromising view made use of the projectionist theory of religion expressed by Feuerbach and others. Barth’s conclusion was challenged somewhat by another Swiss theologian, Emil Brunner (1889–1966), who allowed a modicum of insight for fallen humanity into God’s nature. The concession was, however, a slight one.

The Dutch theologian Hendrik Kraemer (1888–1965) applied the doctrine of the theology of the Word to non-Christian religions in The Christian Message in a Non-Christian World, which had a wide impact on the overseas mission field. Since religions are cultural products and since each system of belief is organic and particular, there are, according to Kraemer, no points of contact between them and the Gospel (even Christianity as an empirical religion must be distinguished from it: its only advantage is to have been continuously under the judgment and influence of the Gospel). Kraemer’s position has come under some criticism from students of comparative religion; one of the theological problems it poses is that it seems to shut off the possibilities of dialogue between religions.

After Barth, the most influential theologian in the 20th century was Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976). Though he was mainly concerned with the presentation of the faith, his project of “demythologization” has had a wide significance for the historian of religions, for it involves a theory of myth. Bultmann came to the New Testament material partly as a historian and partly as a theologian influenced by the existentialism of Heidegger. He centred his interest on the difference between the style of thinking in the early church, as expressed in the New Testament writings, and modern thought. In modern times, people can no longer think in the mythological terms employed in the New Testament presentation of the Gospel. Therefore, it is necessary to demythologize the New Testament message. For Bultmann, the mythological elements were belief in the pre-existence of Christ, the three-layer universe (heaven, earth, and hell), miracles, ascension into heaven, demonology, and various other elements of the Judeo-Christian-Hellenistic world view. The inner meaning of the myths, he claimed, must be explicated in existential terms and purged of the objectifications that they contain. Thus, his theory contains an empirical claim—namely, about the original function of myths (expressing existential attitudes through objectified representations). Bultmann’s theory, however, has not yet been brought together with anthropological and other theories of myth.

A follower of Bultmann, Fritz Buri, considered Bultmann’s stance to be insufficiently radical, for Bultmann differentiated between the kerygma (the essential proclamation of the early church) and the myths, desiring to retain the former but not the latter. Buri attempted to overcome this distinction. Authentic existence is not, according to Buri, distinctively Christian, and he was led to a position not altogether different in principle from that of Troeltsch. Buri’s views also led him into considering in some depth the significance of other religions.

The relationship of Western Christianity to other religions

Since World War II, Western Christianity has found it difficult, from a cultural point of view, to ignore the challenge of other religions, and the mood has changed somewhat from the more rigorous climate in which the theology of the Word (i.e., Barth’s position) was dominant. The “theology of religions” (analogous to the “history of religions”) has moved in the direction of dialogue, which sometimes simply refers to mutual acquaintance in charity so that people of differing faiths can come to understand more deeply the meaning of each other’s religions. More significantly, it means a kind of mutual theologizing. Among the more prominent writers who have been involved one way or another in the process of dialogue have been the Jewish philosopher Martin Buber (1878–1965), the English Islamic scholar Kenneth Cragg, and the Canadian Islamic scholar Wilfred Cantwell Smith. In effect, modern dialogue continues an earlier tradition that emphasized some continuities between religions, notably the work of the British theologian John Oman (1860–1939), who was influenced both by Schleiermacher and Otto, though critical of the latter. Oman contrasted prophetic and mystical religion and considered that the former had the highest conception of the supernatural. There are analogies between his position and that of the important Swedish theologian, historian of religion, and archbishop Nathan Söderblom (1866–1931).

A rather different theory of myth and symbolism from that of Bultmann was expressed by Paul Tillich, who viewed religion as having to do with what concerns human beings ultimately. He taught that symbolic and mythological language, used by all religions, points beyond itself to the being in which the symbols participate. Tillich used the term being in an existential sense (one related directly to human experience and commitment) rather than a strictly metaphysical sense. Also, he claimed that it is not possible to dispense with the symbolic, which is essential to the task of speaking about ultimate reality, but the myths are to be “broken”—that is, they are to be seen as not being literally true.

Christian theology since the 19th century has largely been more concerned with intellectual and social challenges, however, than with the analysis of religion, which has been secondary to that concern.

Modern origin and development of the history and phenomenology of religion

The history of religions on a cross-cultural basis, though it has quite an ancient pedigree, came into its own in a modern sense from about the time of Max Müller. During the latter part of the 19th century an attempt was made to place comparative methodology on a systematic basis (often called the “science of religion”), and in this connection the work of the Dutch theologians Pierre Daniël Chantepie de la Saussaye (1848–1920) and Cornelis Petrus Tiele (1830–1902) was important. During this period, various lectureships and chairs in the subject were instituted. In the Netherlands, following the reform of the theological faculties in 1876, four chairs in the history of religions were founded. In 1879 a chair was founded at the Collège de France (followed by others elsewhere in France), while a number were created in Switzerland. The subject also spread to Great Britain (where chairs at Manchester and London were instituted), the United States (at Harvard and Chicago), and elsewhere in the Western world. In Germany, on the other hand, there was strong resistance, notably from Adolf von Harnack, who thought that theology should avoid what he regarded as dilettantism and that the subject was sufficiently covered in the study of biblical religion.

The first congress of Religionswissenschaft (“science of religion”) took place in Stockholm in 1897, and a similar one in the history of religions took place at Paris in 1900. Later, the International Association for the History of Religions, dedicated to a mainly nonnormative and nontheological approach, was formed. Also important was the compilation of encyclopaedias, notably Hastings’s Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics, with many distinguished contributions. Thus, there were development and progress in the new subject in the latter part of the 19th and early part of the 20th century. In the 1960s came the next major burst of expansion.

A great amount of the work of scholars in the field has been devoted to exploring particular histories—piecing together, for instance, the history of gnosticism (a Hellenistic-Christian heretical sect that emphasized dualism) or of early Buddhism. In principle, Christianity is considered from the same point of view, but much significant work has also been comparative and structural. This can range from the attempt to establish rather particular comparisons, such as Otto’s comparison (in his Mysticism East and West) of the medieval German mystic Meister Eckhart and the medieval Hindu philosopher Shankara, to a systematic typology, as in Religion in Essence and Manifestation by the Dutch historian of religion Gerardus van der Leeuw.

There have been many significant scholars in the history and phenomenology of religion since Max Müller. Rudolf Otto (1869–1937) made a profound impression on the scholarly world with the publication of The Idea of the Holy (in its German edition of 1917), which showed the influence of Schleiermacher, Marett, Edmund Husserl, and the Neo-Kantianism of Jakob Fries (1773–1843). More important than the philosophical side of his enterprise, however, was the excellent delineation of a central experience and sentiment and the elucidation of the concept of the holy. The central experience Otto refers to is the numinous (Latin numen, “spirit”) in which the Other (i.e., the transcendent) appears as a mysterium tremendum et fascinans—that is, a mystery before which humanity both trembles and is fascinated, is both repelled and attracted. Thus, God can appear both as wrathful or awe-inspiring, on the one hand, and as gracious and lovable, on the other. The sense of the numinous, according to Otto, is sui generis, though it may have psychological analogies, and it gives an access to reality, which is categorized as holy. Otto stresses what he calls the nonrational character of the numinous, but he does not deny that rational attributes may be applied to God (or the gods or other numinous powers), such as goodness and personality. The impact of Otto’s work, however, does not depend on the now rather curious Neo-Kantian scheme into which he presses his data. Not all scholars would agree that the numinous is universal as a central element in religion, as Otto seems to have supposed: early Jainism and Theravada Buddhism, for example, have other central values. Otto’s treatment of mysticism, which is central to Buddhism, wavers somewhat, and the notions of the “wholly Other” and of the tremendum do not easily apply to the experience of nirvana (the state of bliss) or to other deliverances of the contemplative mystical consciousness.

Friedrich Heiler (1892–1967), like Otto a professor at Marburg (Germany), was a strong proponent of the phenomenological and comparative method, as in his major work on prayer. Heiler, however, went beyond the scientific study of religion in attempting to promote interreligious fellowship, partly through the Religiöser Menschheitsbund (Union of Religious Persons), which he helped to found. Heiler believed in the essential unity of religions—a recurring theme in various guises in the period, though open to question because of the widely apparent divergences between prophetic and other religions, such as Theravada Buddhism and Jainism, which do not believe in a supreme personal being.

The phenomenologist of religion who probably has had the greatest influence after Otto, partly because he is fairly explicit about method, is Gerardus van der Leeuw (1890–1950), who was somewhat influenced by the French anthropologist Lucien Lévy-Bruhl (1857–1939) and his notion of prelogical mentality, which he applied to nonliterate cultures to distinguish them from literate ones. Van der Leeuw emphasized power as being the basic religious conception. His major work, Religion in Essence and Manifestation, is an ambitious and wide-ranging typology of religious phenomena, including the kinds of sacrifice, types of holy men, categories of religious experience, and other types of religious phenomena. The work has been criticized, however, as being unhistorical. Partly because of his philosophical presuppositions, borrowed chiefly from Husserl, van der Leeuw held the disputable doctrine that phenomenology knows nothing of the historical development of religion: it picks out timeless essences of religious phenomena. Apparently it is not necessary, however, to hold this doctrine, since one could as well classify types of religious change (i.e., temporal sequences), as indeed Max Weber attempted to do. Classificatory and historical techniques and conclusions are not incompatible, however. Thus, the work of Nathan Söderblom, who, as well as being a historian of religions, was prominent in the ecumenical movement, combined the two aspects in his Living God.

The Chicago school

The phenomenological method was brought to the United States primarily by the German American historian of religions Joachim Wach (1898–1955), who established Religionswissenschaft (“science of religion”) in Chicago and was thus the founder of the modern “Chicago school” (though his successor, Mircea Eliade, had a rather different slant). Wach was concerned with emphasizing three aspects of religion—the theoretical (or mental; i.e., religious ideas and images), the practical (or behavioral), and the institutional (or social)—and, because of his concern for the study of religious experience, he interested himself in the sociology of religion, attempting to indicate how religious values tended to shape the institutions that expressed them. Wach, however, was not committed to a religious neutralism in his use of the idea of a “science of religion.” For him, Religionswissenschaft deepens the sense of the numinous and strengthens, rather than paralyzes, religious impulses.

Mircea Eliade (1907–86), a Romanian scholar who emigrated to the United States after World War II, has had a wide influence, partly because of his substantive studies on Yoga (a Hindu meditation technique) and on shamanism (both these major works are now regarded as classical studies of their subjects) and partly because of his later writings, which attempted to synthesize data from a wide variety of cultures. The synthesis incorporates a theory of myth and history. Eliade was also a founder of the journal History of Religions, which expresses the Chicago school viewpoint. Eliade was somewhat influenced by Jung, both in his psychological interpretations of certain religious experiences (such as those attained in the practice of Yoga) and more importantly in his attempt to give an interpretation in depth to the mythic material over which he ranged so widely. He also affirmed strongly the importance of the history of religions in the intellectual world and was thus concerned to emphasize its unique and positive role in providing a “creative hermeneutics” (critical interpretive method) of the religious and existential condition of human beings. Two important elements in the theory of Eliade are, first, that the distinction between the sacred and the profane is fundamental to religious thinking and is to be interpreted existentially (the symbols of religion are, typically, profane in literal interpretation but are of cosmic significance when viewed as signs of the sacred); and, second, that archaic religion is to be contrasted with the linear, historical view of the world. The latter essentially comes from biblical religion, and the former viewpoint tends to treat time cyclically and mythically—referring to foundational events, such as the Creation, the beginning of the human race, and the Fall of Man, on to illud tempus (the sacred primordial time), which is reenacted in the repetitions of the ritual and in the retelling of the myth. Though Christianity has contained archaic elements, in essence it is linear and historical. Thus, faith in Christianity involves a kind of fall from archaic timelessness, and secularization—in which the overt symbolism of religion is driven underground into the unconscious—is a second fall. Eliade was not very explicit about his meaning beyond this point. He was concerned not only with descriptive phenomenology, in which context his analysis of the religious functions of time and space is most illuminating, but also with a kind of metaphysical speculation (as exemplified in his idea of the Fall).

Other studies and emphases

Though not always giving a detailed account of the correlation between myth and ritual, Eliade was indebted to the so-called myth and ritual school, which has influenced thinking in the history of religions and which was important in the 1930s, especially in the interpretation of Middle Eastern mythology. Thus, the Enuma elish, the Babylonian creation epic, was discovered to be no mere set of stories but rather a mythic drama reenacted every year at the spring festival, at which time the foundation of the world is ritually renewed. More generally, it was seen that for a wide range of sacred stories it was important to discover the ritual context. The most influential statement of the school’s position is to be found in Myth and Ritual (1933), edited by the English biblical scholar and Orientalist Samuel Hooke.

Meanwhile, the categorization of types of religion (e.g., as polytheism, henotheism, or other) continued to stimulate attempts at a deeper understanding of the emergence of monotheism. To some extent, scholars remained under the influence of the older evolutionism. An important work in this connection was Dio: formazione e sviluppo del monoteismo nella storia delle religioni (“God: Formation and Development of Monotheism in the History of Religions”), by the Italian historian of religion Raffaele Pettazzoni (1883–1959), who emphasized the importance of the divinized sky in the development of monotheism. He was critical of the Urmonotheismus of Wilhelm Schmidt, considering that the latter’s theory of an original monotheism went very far beyond the evidence. At best, the facts could only support the conclusion that early peoples believed in a supreme celestial being. Pettazzoni, in his concern for problems of method, was critical of the sharp division between phenomenology and history. He considered that the former cannot exist without the historical sciences—e.g., history, philology, and archaeology—but that it supplies scholars in the latter fields a sense of the religious significance of what they discover. This point of view was also more vigorously espoused by the Swedish scholar Geo Widengren (1907–96), who specialized mainly in Iranian religions. The need to integrate historical and structural studies has caused some debate, and there has also been some contrast made between historical approaches and contemporary sociological and (essentially theological) dialogical approaches to religion. To some extent, such debates represent different ideals of scholarship, but it is difficult to note where the essential incompatibilities lie. For many scholars, the multidisciplinary way of studying religion is difficult to comprehend.

Meanwhile, the long-standing interest in the Indo-European group of religions was given a new impetus in the work of the French comparative philologist and mythologist Georges Dumézil (1898–1986), who broke away from an etymological (analysis of word derivations) approach and sought instead the thematic traits of the gods in the mythical material. This approach, pioneered by others before Dumézil, also was skeptical of the easy identification of gods with natural forces and emphasized the sociological functions of the divinities—without, however, holding to a reductionist theory. Dumézil’s theory was partly stimulated by discoveries in the Middle East, notably that of Boğazköy (Turkey), which revealed a similarity between some of the chief gods of the Indo-European Mitannians and those of the Indian Vedic tradition. His theory correlated the functions of the gods with the tripartite division of Indo-European societies—namely, the priestly regal, the nobility, and the producers (agriculturalists, craftsmen). Though his work has been controversial (there are, for instance, some difficulties about its application to ancient Greece, despite the fact that the analysis seems to apply to the threefold division of society into philosophers, warriors, and producers in Plato’s Republic), there is no doubt that the search for correlated functions of the kind Dumézil postulated has been significant in the area of Indo-European mythology.

Dumézil’s work is one example of a thematic comparative study. The interest in such studies has grown since World War II. Examples can be found in the writings of such thinkers as the English scholar Samuel G.F. Brandon (1907–71) in his treatment of ideas such as creation and time in different religions, but with special reference to the ancient Middle East, and the English Indo-Iranian scholar R.C. Zaehner (1913–74), notably in his work on mysticism, as in his Mysticism Sacred and Profane. Zaehner’s was a definitely Christian approach rather than a scientific-descriptive one, and his concern was to distinguish between theistic and other forms of mysticism, such as monistic mysticism as found, according to him, in Yoga, Advaita, and even Theravada Buddhism.

Apart from the comparative phenomenological studies, there has also been a strong growth of historical work in regard to particular religions. This has been most obvious in Indian religions—in Hinduism and Buddhism especially. In part, this is the result of a general growth in non-Christian religions in the post-World War II era and of the need to come to terms with Asian and African cultures after the demise of European hegemony.