Concern with the problem of evil—i.e., with reconciling the existence of evil with that of a good God—becomes acute for thinkers who rest their case mainly on what they find in the world around them, and this has led many to retreat to the notion of a finite God, according to which the world may be under the direction of a superior being who is nonetheless limited in power, though not in goodness. This is a serious alternative to the idea of a supreme and unlimited source of all reality as found in the usual forms of theism. Indeed, it is a moot point whether the idea of a finite God should be classified as a form of theism. It does come close to traditional theism, however, in its insistence on the unity and absolute benevolence of God. There are clearly advantages in the notion of God as a limited being, especially where evil is concerned. Though one could still insist that God intends nothing that is not wholly good, one can now account for extensive suffering and other ills on the basis of the limits to God’s power. He is doing his utmost, the finitist holds, but there are things—refractory materials or explicitly evil powers—that he has not yet subdued, though hopefully he will eventually do so. There is also induced in this way a sense of urgency in humanity’s own obligation, as the apex of creation, to cooperate with God—to be a “fellow worker.” God will clearly need this help, though he himself is in the vanguard of the battle against evil. Thus, those who incline to the idea of a finite God usually have been activist in thought and practice.

There are also grave difficulties to be met. For if a thinker has recourse to the idea of God simply to account for what is otherwise bewildering in the finite course of things, he may find no warrant for the inference involved and indeed may find himself desperately clinging to what is sometimes called “the God of the gaps” (i.e., of the gaps in human explanations). If, on the other hand, he starts from the inherently incomplete character of finite explanation as such, or from the contingency of finite things, nothing short of an infinite or absolute God will meet the case. It is also questionable whether the attitude of worship is appropriate for a limited being, however superior he may be to humans.

Among the outstanding advocates of the idea of a finite God were, at the turn of the 20th century, the American pragmatist William James and some of his disciples, notably Ralph Barton Perry. Thus, it is not surprising that a closely similar notion that arose in the mid-20th century found its main inspiration and support in the United States, in the work of thinkers in the tradition of process philosophy, such as the logician Charles Hartshorne and the theologian Schubert Ogden. Both these figures built upon some of the leading ideas of Alfred North Whitehead, an eminent mathematician and metaphysician. Philosophers and theologians who base their work on Whitehead’s metaphysical scheme dispute the nature of God’s presence within creation and the extent of God’s power within it, thus departing from more traditional theistic views. God is himself in the process of fulfillment within the incessantly emerging world. He is also himself a creature among other creatures, even though he permeates and unifies the universe by providing the “divine lure” that encourages all other creatures, and thus the universe overall, toward fulfillment. There are admitted problems in this view—e.g., the nature of the relationship between God and individual creatures, which Whitehead thought occurred through a mode of perception that he called “prehension”—that have spurred its late 20th- and early 21st-century advocates to develop novel solutions. For example, the American philosopher and theologian Bernard M. Loomer ultimately moved toward a sophisticated variety of pantheism. Others remained within the theist camp or, like the American theologian Marjorie Suchocki, moved toward a position called panentheism, in which God remains something greater than the created world and helps to lure it toward greater fulfillment.