Land and its enjoyment
In modern civil-law systems, protection is given by provisions found in both the property and tort sections of the codes. Common-law systems give property owners equivalent protection, but through the law of torts. Thus, direct physical intrusion on the property of another falls within the province of the old tort of trespass. This succeeds without any proof of special damage and is defeated only by rather narrowly defined pleas such as that of imminent necessity (to protect the intruder or his property) or inevitable accident.
Other interests in land, however, receive a more qualified protection and must yield to the test of reasonableness. A miscellany of wrongs, ranging from encroachment of branches or roots to falling tiles or slates from nearby roofs, are covered by the amorphous tort of private nuisance, which also covers such interferences as excessive vibrations, noise, smells, and other, more modern, instances of pollution. The emphasis is not on the unreasonableness of the defendant’s conduct, as in the tort of negligence, but on the unreasonableness of the interference with the plaintiff’s use and enjoyment of his land. The unifying element is the type of harm, and the law’s overall aim is to protect an individual’s right to enjoy the amenities of his land within the general framework of give-and-take necessary in an increasingly crowded world.
Balancing competing interests is therefore the key feature, and numerous judgments make it a difficult area of law. Its particular interest lies in the fact that, along with other branches of the law (e.g., administrative law and criminal law), it can help perform zoning functions in the use of land; however, attempts to utilize it in protecting the environment have not, on the whole, been very successful. In short this is an old tort that has been deployed to cope with modern developments, especially by North American systems.
The gravity of any interference with the plaintiff’s land is a major consideration. Older English decisions distinguish between sensible material damage to the land and mere interference with its use and enjoyment. The distinction—not found in any rigid form in civil-law systems—is, however, often unworkable; and to the extent that it reflects a past valuing of tangible forms of property over intangible ones, it may be inadequate. The duration of the interference may also be crucial, temporary annoyances being on the whole more tolerable. The nature of the locality has also been taken into account. This has a mixed effect, however. It has certainly helped preserve rural and residential areas against intruding noxious trades; but it has also permitted increased industrial pollution.
The more important the purpose of the activity complained about, the greater the tendency to grant effective authorization of the nuisance by legislative fiat. But the effect of the nuisance—typically an oil refinery or airport—on its victims can be catastrophic, often amounting to indirect expropriation of their land. Hence, there exist special compensation acts or constitutional clauses providing for compensation.
Chattels
The law affords wide protection to proprietary interests over chattels. Again, this can involve using a proprietary remedy to reclaim goods removed from their rightful owner or to claim damages for chattels affected by a tortfeasor’s intentional or negligent conduct. Intentional interference with goods is unusual and therefore receives specialized treatment by some systems. Most cases arise in connection with damaged movables, and here the more modern tort of negligence often applies, the problem usually being the extent of compensation. For example, if an automobile is damaged in a collision, its owner will be able to claim from the wrongdoer the cost of repairs. But can such cost be claimed if it exceeds that of purchasing a similar vehicle? And what of extra transportation costs incurred during the period of repair or the expense of hiring an equivalent substitute? Even more controversial are recent claims for such injuries as a lost or ruined holiday following damage to the vehicle. Although the latter claim tends to be regarded as extravagant (and beyond the competence of tort law at least), the others tend to be satisfied, subject to the rules of remoteness and the pervading test of reasonableness (e.g., the victim cannot hire a luxury automobile to replace a damaged economy car). In other instances, however, theoretical doubts may arise as to whether there is interference with property or mere economic loss. For example, if a canal leading to a millpond collapses, trapping but not damaging a vessel, has the owner of the vessel suffered property damage or mere economic loss? Or if a fire forces the police to cordon off an area, depriving its residents of access to their automobiles, have they suffered a property interference? Sometimes courts focus on the duration of the interference and treat prolonged deprivation as equivalent to property damage. In other cases, however, they treat these instances as cases of pure economic loss and reject any claim for compensation.
Negligently inflicted pure economic loss
Economic loss can arise in numerous ways: an employer deprived of the services of a key employee; a child deprived of the financial support of his father; negligent advice given by A to B and relied upon by C; a defective will negligently attested by the lawyers who drew it up, depriving the intended beneficiary of his legacy; or negligent actions during road construction that damage a municipality’s electric cables, depriving many nearby factories and homes of electrical power. An enduring question is whether all the parties harmed by these activities should be able to recover compensation for their losses.
Common-law and German-inspired systems have here faced enormous difficulties, partly because the courts’ reasoning seems to be motivated by administrative considerations: if one such claim is accepted, many others will follow. Another difficulty stems from the fact that many of these cases sit uncomfortably on the traditional divide between contract and tort. Yet a third problem arises from the particular structural deficiencies of each system. For example, the narrow rule of vicarious liability found in the German Civil Code, along with its express exclusion of negligently inflicted pure economic loss from the protection of the main tort provision, has led German lawyers to expand their law of contract to provide a remedy in some of the above-mentioned situations. In contrast, a rigid law of contract, especially in the English common law, has led to an expansion—often far-fetched and ill-considered—of the law of tort, though this is nowadays in retreat. On the whole, however, German law and common law have come up with fairly similar solutions proclaiming, unlike French law, a general though increasingly ill-defined hostility toward compensating pure economic loss. These disputes have given rise to some judgments that have attempted to work out solutions on the basis of a better understanding of the insurance implications—notably, in the Canadian Supreme Court case Canadian National Railway v. Norsk Pacific Steamship Co. (1992), in which the court had to decide whether the main user of a negligently destroyed bridge could claim the extra costs of transporting products to the island that the bridge once served. Such cases have given rise to fascinating academic theories that have nonetheless failed to provide a satisfactory explanation of why, in the Romanistic legal family (e.g., France, Italy, and Spain), the compensation of pure economic loss does not appear to be the problem that it seems to be in the common-law and Germanic systems.