The colonial city

Colonial cities arose in societies that fell under the domination of Europe and North America in the early expansion of the capitalist world system. The colonial relationship required altering the productivity of the colonial society in order that its wealth could be exported to the core nations, and colonial cities centralized this function. Their major cultural role was to house the agencies of this unequal relationship: the colonial political institutions—bureaucracies, police, and the military—by which the core ruled the colony, and the economic structure—banks, merchants, and moneylenders—through which wealth drained from colony to core.

Bombay and Calcutta under the British, the European trading cities in China and West Africa, the British East African and Dutch East Indian urban centres for the collection of plantation crops—from the 18th through the mid-20th centuries—represent this urban type. The core capitalist nations implanted colonial cities as new growths into preexisting precapitalist state societies in many world regions, just as they altered the societies by making them unequal participants in world capitalism. The resulting urban culture represented a novel amalgam of the core and the periphery, with qualities not found in either parent culture.

This new combination was most in evidence in the elite population of the colonial city and its cultural forms. For example, new classes and urban lifeways appeared among the indigenous population. Most of the time the cultural role of the colonial city required the creation of an indigenous urban lower-middle class of merchants, moneylenders, civil servants, and others who were educated to serve the colonial political and economic establishment. For instance, Thomas Babington Macauley, a British Indian administrator in the mid-19th century, hoped to create an elite through Western-style education that was “Indian in blood and colour, but English in taste, in opinion, in morals and intellect.” The colonial educated lower-middle class often attempted to reform its culture in line with that of the colonizing power, most often through new urban institutions like schools, welfare associations, and sectarian or secular reform groups. A generation or so later, this class transformed by these urban institutions, commonly formed the leadership of nationalist, anticolonial movements. Thus, the colonial city, which began as an instrument of colonial exploitation, became a vehicle of anticolonial protest through this lower middle class and the cultural institutions, schools, newspapers, and other urban cultural forms it had constructed.

After World War II many new nations in Asia and Africa gained independence. Although no longer the direct political colonies of Western countries, these urban cultures and their cities continued in a dependent economic relationship with the advanced industrial nations.

The neocolonial city

The latest type of urban development in the periphery of the capitalist world system, or what is often called the Third World, is the neocolonial city. This urban type has arisen in relation to the development of monopoly capitalism and the mass-communications city in the core. Export capital from advanced industrial nations has created enclaves of industrial production in Third World cities, thus replicating in these urban places many of the cultural roles played by the industrial city in the core. There are urban factories and urban-resident wage labourers. There is a developing infrastructure of urban transport and communication by which these commodities and labourers are allocated. There is massive urban-ward migration from neighbouring rural areas.

The neocolonial city, however, does not exactly duplicate the cultural role of the industrial urban type precisely because of its dependent relationship with the core. One major difference is that the commodities produced in neocolonial cities generally are destined for export rather than for home consumption, except perhaps by a small home elite. The neocolonial city does not serve an indigenous hinterland; it serves the wider world economy. Its rural environs are important only because they provide a large and readily available labour supply.

The large-scale urbanization in the neocolonial city differs from the urbanization that characterized the industrial city earlier. It gives rise to what has been called the informal economy in these cities. The informal economy consists of urban services and products provided by the neocolonial city’s poorest denizens, the petty hawkers, the shoeshine boys, the household help, the rag pickers, and others who form a class of petty commodity producers and sellers. The common image of these people is highly pejorative: they are marginal to the city, usually unemployed and often criminal, unmotivated and dysfunctional to urban life, characterized by a “culture of poverty” that, at the same time, makes them accept their wretched condition and keeps them in it. Their marginality is often said to be exemplified in the shantytowns, tin can cities, or squatter settlements that they build at the borders of the city and that blight it. This “myth of marginality” as Janice Perlman calls it (The Myth of Marginality, 1976) obscures the importance of shantytown inhabitants in defining the nature of the neocolonial city.

To compete successfully in the world market, commodities manufactured in Third World cities have to be less expensive than the comparable items produced in the core. Wage labour in the industrial sector of these cities is considerably cheapened because many services and small commodities that wage labourers require are supplied through the informal economy. As Larissa Lomnitz indicates in Networks and Marginality: Life in a Mexican Shantytown (1977), recent rural migrants and shantytown dwellers act as maids, gardeners, and handymen to the industrial workers and the middle class at costs well below what would be charged if the formal sector supplied these services (comparable to domestic labour and baby-sitting supplied well below minimum wage in the core nations).

The informal urban economy never provides security, and the inhabitants of shantytowns in neocolonial cities have had to develop cultural means of survival over the hard times that commonly befall them. Rather than being places of anomie, shantytowns are made up of highly intimate webs of relationship and mutual dependence, based on carefully fostered kinship, ethnic, sectarian, or friendship networks. These networks succor those temporarily out of money and provide some security for those otherwise economically unprotected, who have neither job security nor welfare institutions to fall back on, given the informal sector work that they do.

These networks, which are in fact adaptations to the exigencies of neocolonial cities, often appear as survivals from the peasant or rural backgrounds of the shantytown dwellers—they are said to be “peasant urbanites” rather than truly urbanized, and this image incorrectly strengthens the notion of their marginality. The tribal identities found among recent urban migrants in African cities are actually instances of “retribalization,” a strengthening or redefinition of tribal identity to form networks among urban migrants for mutual aid. Similarly, extended family networks may not disappear in the city; they became wider and stronger among Mexican shantytown inhabitants, for example. New sectarian identities can play an equivalent role: Bryan Roberts in Cities of Peasants (1978) shows that the growth of Pentecostal and other Protestant sects in Guatemala fulfills needs for mutual support networks in poor neighbourhoods and for those without kin ties.

Although shantytown inhabitants in the informal economy are impoverished and insecure, it is not certain that they can organize and struggle for better urban living conditions, as did wage labourers in industrial cities. Whereas some scholars have argued for the revolutionary potential of this class, others are persuaded that it does not form a proletariat and will not engage in revolutionary confrontation. The fact that the people who live in shantytowns are “self-employed” and do not enter a wage relationship with the urbanites whom they provide with services apparently limits class antagonisms. Furthermore, both the middle class and shantytown dwellers often perceive their real enemies as the Western imperialist nations or the national government said to be in league with international capital. This perception recognizes that the travails of all classes in the neocolonial city have more to do with external economic relationships in the world economy than class exploitation within the city.