- Related Topics:
- mite
- tick
- chigger
- Parasitiformes
- Acariformes
External features
The subclass Acari is generally distinguished by the lack of body segmentation, although it is secondarily developed in a few families. This is a characteristic shared only with the spiders among the arachnids. An anterior region called the gnathosoma contains the mouth, specialized feeding appendages (chelicerae), and segmented structures called palps, or pedipalps. The mouth or buccal cavity joins the pharynx internally, and paired salivary glands may discharge into the mouth or in front of its opening. The chelicerae are basically three-segmented pincerlike appendages; however, as a result of the diverse feeding habits of some mites, chelicerae sometimes are modified as piercing organs (stylets). The pedipalps, which may be simple sensory structures or predatory organs modified for grasping or piercing, usually have five free segments: trochanter, femur, genu, tibia, tarsus, and frequently there also is a clawlike apotele (a modified sixth distal segment of the appendage).
Behind the gnathosoma is a large region (idiosoma) that bears the legs, the genital and anal openings, and an assortment of tactile and sensory structures. Respiratory pores (stigmata) and sclerotized shields of various shapes and sizes usually are present. The functions of the idiosoma parallel those of the abdomen, thorax, and portions of the head of insects. Although nymphs and adults commonly have four pairs of legs, some Prostigmata (Eriophyidae, Podapolipidae, Tenuipalpidae) and Astigmata (Evansacaridae, Teinocoptidae) have one to three pairs. Legs have the same basic segmentation as pedipalps plus a basal coxa. However, fusion or division of segments frequently occurs. The tarsus may be terminated either by several sensory hairs (setae) or by a clawlike or suckerlike apotele. The legs, which frequently bear ridges and spurs, always have tactile and sensory setae that follow a fixed pattern in position and number. These leg setae are used in establishing systematic relationships. The first pair of legs usually functions in locomotion but sometimes is modified as a sensory or predatory structure.
The genital opening, usually located on the underside between the legs, frequently is protected by one or more shields or flaps and has two or three pairs of disks. In some Prostigmata (Cloacaridae, Demodicidae, Myobiidae, Ophioptidae, Podapolipidae), however, the male genitalia (aedeagus) is located on the dorsal side. The anal opening, also generally on the underside, is surrounded by a shield in the Mesostigmata and is always closed by a pair of valves. In some Prostigmata (Penthaleidae) and Astigmata (Chirorhynchobiidae, Knemidocoptidae) the anal opening is located on the dorsal side. As in all arthropods, the cuticle of acarids is secreted by an outer cell layer called the epidermis. The cuticle of many acarids absorbs water from the air, enabling them to avoid desiccation.
There are many different types of sensory receptors, most of which are setal. The setae, of many shapes and sizes, may be hollow chemoreceptors or solid, tactile structures. Other specialized setae, known as trichobothria, pseudostigmatic organs, eupathidia, or famuli, occur only in the Acariformes. A sensory pit called Haller’s organ contains sensory setae and is found on the tarsal segment of the first pair of legs of all ticks (Ixodida). One to three pairs of eyes are present on the anterior of the idiosoma in Opilioacariformes, a few Astigmata, and many Ixodida and Prostigmata. A single median eye also may be present in some Prostigmata.
Internal features
The digestive system consists of an anterior muscular pharynx, long narrow esophagus, ventriculus (stomach), short intestine, hindgut, and posterior rectal cavity. The ventriculus may have several paired gastric cecae (blind sacs), which function partly as food-storage organs and enable some acarids to go for long periods without feeding. One or two pairs of excretory organs (Malpighian tubules), which may open into the hindgut, absorb waste material from the body cavity and transform it into an organic compound called guanine, which passes into the hindgut, where it is mixed with other waste products, and eventually is excreted from the anal orifice. Some Ixodida and Prostigmata have no connection between the ventriculus and hindgut, and the latter serves as an excretory organ.
The idiosomal body cavity contains various organ systems bathed in hemolymph (arthropod blood). Circulation of blood carrying the products of digestion and excretion may be by movement of muscles or by a “heart” (or vessel), which is present in some orders and suborders. The blood of some soft ticks (Argasidae) differs from that of other acarids biochemically, although it is similar morphologically.
One to four pairs of respiratory stigmata are present in the idiosomal region of all acarid orders and suborders except Astigmata and some Prostigmata and Oribatida, which respire through the cuticle or have other types of respiratory organs. Stigmata open internally into a system of tubes (tracheae) that radiates throughout the body. Tracheae function in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide and help to control water loss in certain species.
A well-developed central nervous system surrounds the esophagus in the idiosoma. A series of nerves radiating from one part of the brain innervates the legs, digestive system, musculature, and genitalia. The mouthparts are innervated by another part of the brain.
The male and female reproductive systems vary in structure and position. The gonads may be paired (primitive condition), united, or multiple (testes in some Prostigmata). There usually are accessory glands associated with the reproductive systems, especially in males.
Four types of pheromones, alarm, assembly, attachment, and sex, have been reported in acarids, with those of ticks (Ixodida) being the best known.
Classification
Distinguishing taxonomic features
Features that distinguish the superorders, orders, and suborders of Acari include the presence or absence of stigmata—if present, the type, relative position, and structures associated with the stigmata are important—the position and form of the palpal apotele (modified distal segment of palpus) when present, the type and location of sensory organs, the type of mouthparts, and the presence or absence of eyes.
Annotated classification
The process of evolution in mites and ticks has resulted in a degree of specialization and morphological diversity not found in any other group of arachnids. Acarids, believed to be derived from two lines of descent, have a long, though meagre, fossil history dating from the Devonian Period (about 395 million years ago). The acarids may be separated into two superorders: Parasitiformes and Acariformes (in some classifications the order Opilioacarida is considered a superorder, Opilioacariformes). Representative orders and suborders are included beneath superorders.
- Subclass Acari (Acarina, Acarida; mites and ticks)
- Arachnids usually without visible segmentation; mostly minute in size; larvae usually with 3 pairs of legs, adults usually with 4 pairs; diverse habitats include plants, soil, animals, stored foods, fresh and marine water; parasitic forms may transmit diseases; worldwide distribution; about 50,000 described species.
- Superorder Parasitiformes (mites and ticks)
- Small to large in size; usually heavily sclerotized mites; 1 to 4 pairs of stigmata on posterior portion of body; peritremes, or grooves, present or absent; palpal apotele present or absent; tarsi of 1st pair of legs with sensory organs.
- Order Mesostigmata
- Generally with a number of sclerotized plates; 0.2–2 mm in size; eyes absent; pair of stigmata between coxae of 2nd, 3rd, or 4th pair of legs; usually associated with elongated peritremes; palpal apotele present; tritosternum usually well developed but reduced to absent in some parasitic families; majority free-living in soil or decaying organic matter; many parasites of vertebrates (except amphibians and fishes) and invertebrates; some economically important; cosmopolitan; about 76 families, and 5,050 species.
- Order Holothyrida
- Heavily sclerotized; 2–7 mm in size; eyes absent; pair of coxal glands opening at base of coxae of 1st pair of legs; pair of stigmata behind coxae of 3rd and 4th pair of legs, peritremes present; palpal apotele present; tritosternum absent; terrestrial, under stones and decaying vegetation; recorded from Indo-Pacific region, southeastern United States; carnivorous; of minor economic importance; 3 families and about 13 species.
- Order Ixodida (ticks)
- Largest Acari; adults 2–30 mm in size, eyes present or absent; pair of lateral stigmata enclosed in stigmatal plate (modified peritreme) anterior or behind coxae of 4th pair of legs; palpal apotele and tritosternum absent; sensory organ on tarsus of 1st pair of legs a pit (Haller’s organ); mouthparts modified to form hypostome (holdfast organ) with teeth turned backward; active stages mostly external parasites (some nonfeeders), feeding primarily on blood of vertebrates (except fishes); many members economically important as disease carriers; cosmopolitan; 3 families and about 825 species.
- Order Opilioacarida (mites)
- Weakly sclerotized mites superficially resembling members of arachnid subclass Opiliones; 1–2.5 mm in size; body divided into hairy anterior portion bearing 2 or 3 pairs of simple eyes and nude posterior portion with over 200 pores, 4 pairs of stigmata, and 12 secondarily developed segments; terminal palpal apotele a pair of claws; rutellae (hypertrophied setae) present; all coxae of legs movable; 1st 2 pairs of legs with 6 segments, last 2 with divided trochanter, 7 segments; tritosternum paired base divided; terrestrial, under stones and other debris in semiarid habitats; recorded from southwestern United States, Puerto Rico, South America, Central Asia, Africa, and the Mediterranean region; carnivorous and possibly omnivorous; of no economic importance; 1 family.
- Superorder Acariformes (mites)
- Small to large in size; generally weakly sclerotized mites (except most Oribatida); palpal apotele and posterior body stigmata absent; anterior portion of body with or without sensory organs that are specialized setae.
- Order Sarcoptiformes
- Globular mites; 0.3–1.5 mm in size; chelicerae frequently pincerlike; without stigmata; legs sometimes terminate in suckers, claws, or some modification thereof; some with hypopus (resting stage) between first and second nymphal stages; about 230 families and more than 15,000 species.
- Suborder Oribatida (oribatid or beetle mites)
- Usually strongly sclerotized and slow moving, 0.2–1.5 mm in size; eyes and stigmata absent; pseudostigmata generally present, palps without claws, 3–5 segments; chelicerae usually chelate; rutella present; tarsi with 1–3 claws; ventrally with various shields; majority terrestrial in forest humus and soil, a few aquatic; feed on algae, fungi, or decaying material; of some economic importance; cosmopolitan; about 145 families and 8,500 species.
- Suborder Astigmata
- Homogeneous group includes mange, itch, or scab mites; weakly sclerotized and slow moving; 0.2–1.5 mm in size; eyes rarely present, stigmata absent; palps single segmented (sometimes with 2 false segments); chelicerae chelate; true claws absent; rodlike sensory setae on tarsus of 1st pair of legs; wide range of terrestrial habitats; parasitic, predatory, or feed on decaying material; some species economically important; cosmopolitan; about 65 families and 6,500 species.
- Order Trombidiformes
- Large group of diverse mites having features that preclude their inclusion in Sarcoptiformes; about 125 families and more than 22,000 species.
- Suborder Prostigmata
- Heterogeneous suborder includes chiggers; 0.1–16 mm in size; weakly sclerotized with few plates; eyes present or absent; stigmata, when present, at or between bases of chelicerae or on anterior portion of body; chelicerae styletlike, chelate (pincerlike), or reduced; diverse in habitat and habits—terrestrial, aquatic, marine, parasitic, predatory, phytophagous; many species economically important; cosmopolitan; about 135 families and 14,100 species.
- Suborder Sphaerolichina
- Globular mites with soft bodies; 1 to 4 pairs of setae; rutella absent; brown, yellow, pinkish red, or white in colour; economic importance unknown.
Critical appraisal
Acarologists are not in total agreement as to the classification of mites and ticks. Much of the disagreement concerns the levels at which taxonomic divisions should be made and the use of ordinal names; consequently, seemingly different classifications are actually more alike than they may initially appear to be. Knowledge of Acari systematics is so incomplete that any classification proposed below the ordinal level is difficult and may quickly become obsolete.
Multiple classifications, including that used above, have been proposed since 1978 for the mites and ticks. The suborders listed above are treated as orders in other classifications, with the choice of ordinal names differing in some cases.
Nixon A. Wilson