acarid
- Related Topics:
- mite
- tick
- chigger
- Parasitiformes
- Acariformes
acarid, (subclass Acari or Acarida or Acarina), any member of the subgroup of the arthropod class Arachnida that includes the mites and ticks.
General features
Size range and diversity of structure
Some mites are as small as 0.1 mm (0.0039 inch) in length, while the largest ticks are slightly more than 30 mm (1.18 inches) long. Nymphs and adults generally have four pairs of legs, although newly hatched larvae have only three pairs. Members of some families have a dense covering of stiff hairs, or setae, while others are almost nude. Soft-bodied mites and ticks have only a few hardened plates, or shields, but others are strongly sclerotized with numerous hardened plates covering the body. Acarids range in shape from minute, soft-bodied, elongated or circular individuals to large, hard-bodied, spiderlike ones. Some are flattened, but others assume grotesque body shapes as they become engorged with food or filled with eggs.
Distribution and abundance
Mites and ticks are distributed throughout the world in almost every conceivable habitat and frequently occur in large numbers. They are recorded as high as 5,000 metres on the slopes of Mount Everest and as deep as 5,200 metres in the northern Pacific Ocean. More than 50 terrestrial species are known from the Antarctic. A few mites have been found drifting at high altitudes as atmospheric plankton.
Acarids have been found in diverse habitats that include hot springs, caves, harsh deserts, and tundras. Although many of the approximately 50,000 species described are free-living, some are parasites of animals. Some taxonomists have estimated that, if all species were known, the total number of species of mites and ticks would be more than 500,000.
Importance
The Acari are an economically important arachnid group. Ticks (order Ixodida) surpass all other arthropods, except mosquitoes, in the number of diseases they transmit to humans. Many mites also are intermediate hosts of diseases transmissible to humans, domesticated animals, and crops. Others are pests as a result of their biting or feeding habits or the damage they cause to food and related products.
Eriophyid and tetranychid mites (suborder Prostigmata) include many plant-feeding species that frequently seriously injure or kill the host plant. Eriophyids are the only phytophagous acarids known to transmit plant viruses.
In the mite order Holothyrida (superorder Parasitiformes), one species of Holothyrus is known to secrete an irritant substance that is toxic to fowl and humans. The house-mouse mite (Liponyssoides sanguineus) transmits rickettsialpox to humans. Widespread species such as the tropical fowl mite (Ornithonyssus bursa), northern fowl mite (O. sylviarum), and chicken mite (Dermanyssus gallinae) also are pests of poultry and humans.
The mange, itch, or scab mites (Astigmata) occur on many different animals including humans. House-dust allergy is caused by species of Dermatophagoides, an extremely common mite.
The beetle mites (Oribatida) are among the most numerous soil arthropods. These mites are important in the development of soil fertility. Some also act as intermediate hosts for important tapeworm parasites of domestic animals.
Lyme disease of humans and some animals is caused by a spirochete transmitted by Ixodes dammini or other related species. Rocky Mountain spotted fever, a rickettsial disease that occurs in the United States, is transmitted to humans by the bite of several species of hard ticks (Ixodidae), especially the Rocky Mountain wood tick (Dermacentor andersoni) and the American dog tick (D. variabilis). Relapsing fever, an important bacterial disease throughout the world, is transmitted to humans by certain species of soft ticks (Argasidae) of the genus Ornithodoros. Texas cattle fever is a widespread protozoan disease transmitted by cattle ticks (Boophilus). This disease, no longer prevalent in the United States because the tick has been eliminated, remains important in many tropical and subtropical countries. Various other diseases transmitted to animals by ticks include anaplasmosis, tularemia, Q fever, Colorado tick fever, hemorrhagic fever, and tick-borne encephalitis.
The chiggers (Prostigmata), important pests of humans, also transmit scrub typhus (tsutsugamushi disease), a rickettsial disease occurring in the Asia-Pacific region.
Natural history
Reproduction and life cycle
The sexes occur separately in acarids; i.e., there are both males and females. Most species lay eggs (oviparity), but in some parasitic ones the eggs hatch within the female, and the young are born alive. Many species also can reproduce by parthenogenesis, i.e., by development of unfertilized eggs.
Sperm may be transferred either directly or in packets called spermatophores. The male spermatozoa may be introduced by the male copulatory structure (aedeagus) directly into the female genital opening or, as in some Astigmata, into a special female copulatory structure called a bursa copulatrix. The males of species that use the latter method may have special copulatory structures (e.g., suckers, spurs, or enlarged legs) for grasping the female. Some males produce a sealed packet containing spermatozoa (spermatophore) that is transferred to the female genital opening, either directly by the mouthparts of the male or indirectly by deposition on a surface, after which the female places it in her genital opening. Eggs begin to develop after fertilization. Although only a few eggs develop simultaneously in many acarids, large numbers develop at the same time in ticks and some mites. Eggs are deposited haphazardly on food material by many plant- and grain-feeding species and are hidden in the soil by predatory soil-inhabiting species. In one predatory mite, Cheyletus eruditus, females brood a small cluster of eggs and will drive other arthropods from them.
The primitive life cycle among species that lay eggs has four active immature stages: hexapod larva, protonymph, deutonymph, and tritonymph. There are many deviations from this primitive type of life cycle, which is found only in the Oribatida and some Prostigmata. The hexapod larva, characterized by three pairs of legs, is common to all families of acarids except Eriophyidae (Prostigmata), whose members have only two pairs of legs in all active stages. Among the Parasitiformes the Mesostigmata lack the tritonymphal stage. The Ixodidae may have only one nymphal stage, while the Argasidae may have as many as eight. Some Prostigmata (Podapolipidae) develop directly from egg to larviform adults, while others have from one to three nymphal stages. Many Astigmata (superorder Acariformes) have a nonfeeding (hypopal) stage between the protonymphal and tritonymphal stages, which frequently occurs during adverse environmental conditions.
Ecology
The free-living acarids include species from all of the orders and suborders except Ixodida (ticks). The beetle mites (Oribatida) are largely fungal feeders that are extremely numerous in the surface layers of soil. It has been estimated that as many as six million members of one species can occur in one acre of pasture soil.
Some families of free-living mites have specialized styletlike feeding organs (chelicerae), which can pierce plant cells and are used to suck out their contents. Feeding by members of the family Eriophyidae (Prostigmata), for example, causes the formation of galls, dwarfing of shoots, and malformation of fruits and leaves (witches’-broom). The family Tetranychidae (Prostigmata) contains the spider mites, which are foliage feeders. Several species capable of producing silk can spin a light web over plant leaves.
The families Acaridae and Glycyphagidae (Astigmata), pests of stored grain and cereal products, have blunt, toothed chelicerae that enable them to scrape and gouge their food material. Some species of these two families frequently increase to tremendous numbers in foodstuffs, causing “grocers’ itch” or “copra itch” in humans. There are many free-living predatory mites that live in soil, humus, other organic matter, or water, and prey on small arthropods, their eggs, and other small invertebrates.
Many free-living mites utilize insects or other arthropods to disperse themselves, a nonparasitic association known as phoresy. Adults of the genus Dinogamasus (Laelapidae), for example, live in a special mite pouch on an abdominal segment of certain carpenter bees.
Parasitic species are known in all acarid groups except Opilioacariformes, Holothyrina, and Oribatida. The majority are external parasites, including those most important to humans and domesticated animals. A few species are internal parasites of animals. One ecological group contains families found only on the skin surface or feathers of the host. Psoroptidae (Astigmata), or scab mites, for example, attack the skin surface of mammals and feed on skin scales. Their continuous abrasion of the skin causes a lesion over which a protective scab eventually forms. A second ecological group contains several families of mites that burrow into skin, hair follicles, or quills of the host and feed on fatty secretions, lymph material, or, occasionally, blood. The families Sarcoptidae (Astigmata) and Psorergatidae (Prostigmata), for example, contain species that burrow just beneath the skin of a mammalian host, causing mange or itch. A third ecological group contains species that pierce the skin and suck up tissue fluid or blood without actually invading the tissues. These species may spend either short or long intervals on the host.
The larvae of Trombiculidae (Prostigmata), the chiggers, parasitize many vertebrates and a few invertebrates and feed on host tissues (chigger nymphs and adults, however, are free-living and predatory). Species of Dermanyssidae, Macronyssidae, and many Laelapidae (Mesostigmata) feed on blood or tissue secretions of mammals, birds, and reptiles. Some species, which spend much of their time off the host and in the nest, frequently are referred to as nest parasites, or nidicolous species. The protonymph of one species of Macronyssidae, found in the mouth of a long-nosed bat, causes destruction of tissues; and a species of Spinturnicidae (Mesostigmata) is found in the anal opening of certain species of cave-dwelling bats. Most members of the tick families Argasidae and Ixodidae (Ixodida) are obligate blood-sucking parasites of vertebrates, while most Argasidae nymphs and adults feed on the host for only a few minutes. Ixodidae in most stages in the life cycle remain attached to the host for several days.
A few families of mites are found in additional parasitic associations with vertebrates. Rhinonyssidae, Entonyssidae, and Halarchnidae (Mesostigmata), for example, are respiratory parasites of birds, snakes, and mammals, respectively. Several families of mites have established a parasitic relationship with invertebrates. Larvae of Trombidiidae and Erythraeidae (Prostigmata) and other families, for example, are parasitic on insects but are free living in later stages. In contrast, in the aquatic family Unionicolidae (Prostigmata), nymphs and adults parasitize mollusks and sponges, and larvae are free-living.
