- Related Topics:
- spider
- scorpion
- acarid
- daddy longlegs
- mite
Two types of respiratory organs are found among arachnids: book lungs and tracheae. Book lungs are found in hardened pockets generally located on the underside of the abdomen. Diffusion of gases occurs between the hemolymph circulating within thin leaflike structures (lamellae) stacked like pages in a book within the pocket and the air in spaces between these thin structures. The tracheal system consists of a number of tubes that open to the exterior by paired respiratory pores (spiracles) and is similar to that of insects. Diffusion of gases occurs within small fluid-filled tubes that ramify over the internal organs. Scorpions, tailless whip scorpions, and whip scorpions rely upon book lungs. Pseudoscorpions, sunspiders, ricinuleids, daddy longlegs, and mites and ticks have only tracheae. Most spiders have both, and small micro whip scorpions and some extremely small mites have only cutaneous respiration.
Circulatory system
The circulatory system of the arachnids is an open system with hemolymph circulating in tissue sinuses. Special venous channels conduct hemolymph from the tissues to the heart, from which it is pumped through a series of blood vessels back to the sinuses. The respiratory pigment usually is hemocyanin and is in solution in the hemolymph. Although cells are present in the hemolymph, they do not carry oxygen.
Reproductive system
There is considerable variation in the number and appearance of both ovaries and testes. In general, the ovaries are associated with oviducts, and the testes have vasa deferentia. The genital orifice of both sexes is on the undersurface of the second abdominal segment, although in some mites it may be dorsal. Sperm are usually transferred to a special structure of the female, called the spermatheca.
Glands and toxins
The glands of arachnids are usually peculiar to individual orders. In spiders, silk is stored as a viscous liquid in the silk glands, which are located within the abdomen. The number of spinnerets, through which the glandular material is extruded, is variable. The viscous liquid, a protein, passes through minute tubes at the tips of the spinnerets and changes from liquid to solid thread. A structural rearrangement of the protein molecules occurs as the silk is drawn from a silk droplet. The silk of the pseudoscorpions is produced by a spinneret located on a movable projection of the chelicerae. The few mites that produce silk have glands in the area of the mouth.
Toxic substances are secreted by special glands found in the chelicerae of spiders, in the pedipalps of false scorpions, and in the poison glands of scorpions. These substances and their effects differ even within species of the same order. The strongly alkaline poison of spiders is much less poisonous to mammals than to arthropods. Bites of spiders of the genera Loxosceles (brown recluse) and Latrodectus (black widow) may cause human discomfort, while those of the widows may cause serious illness. The venom of most scorpions, sufficiently toxic to kill most invertebrates, usually is not dangerous to humans. However, the venoms of some scorpion genera (Androctonus and Buthus of Africa, various species of Centruroides of Mexico, Arizona, and New Mexico) are highly toxic nerve poisons. The toxicity of the venom of pseudoscorpions is not known. The paired glands located near the anus of whip scorpions secrete specific acids (formic acid and acetic acid) that serve as irritants and apparently are used for defense. The openings of paired odoriferous glands are found on the cephalothorax of daddy longlegs; when irritated, these animals secrete a fluid containing cyanic acid that probably serves to repel predators.
Evolution and paleontology
A major characteristic of arachnid evolution is that segments were fused or lost. The five posterior segments of the scorpions were retained as a tail. Among the spiders, the abdomen is completely fused in adults. Among the mites and ticks, abdominal segmentation was lost, and the body shows no external segmentation. In general, scorpions have the largest number of primitive arachnid features, and spiders and mites are the most highly evolved.
While arachnid fossils are abundant, it is extremely difficult to trace the evolution of individual groups. The earliest forms recognizable as arachnids include a scorpion that dates from the Silurian Period (about 443.7 to 416 million years ago) and an acarid from the Devonian Period (416 to 359.2 million years ago). Spiders with segmented abdomens and presumably four pairs of spinnerets are known to have existed 345 million years ago during the early Carboniferous Period. Micro whip scorpions have been described only as 190-million-year-old fossils from the Jurassic Period in Europe, and the schizomids are known from about 7 million years ago, during the late Cenozoic Era, in Arizona. The Mesozoic Era (about 251 to 65.5 million years ago) is poor in arachnid fossils, but the Cenozoic Era (from about 65.5 million years ago to the present) is rich in them. The stem group of the chelicerates is believed to be among the members of the trilobite-like Olenellinae. These date from the Cambrian Period (542 to 488.3 million years ago). During Paleozoic times the eurypterids, large aquatic animals resembling modern scorpions, were abundant, and both groups can be traced to a common ancestor. The transition to land habitats probably started in moist environments, such as under leaf-litter-like material. Many changes in anatomy and reproductive behaviour had to occur before the arthropods were successful in their transfer to terrestrial life.
Classification
Distinguishing taxonomic features
In classifying arachnids, taxonomists rely mostly upon external structures, including such features as general body form, the degree of visible external segmentation, structural modifications of the prosoma and opisthosoma, characteristics of appendages, and special structures involved in sperm transfer. Internal anatomical features, developmental traits, and serological characteristics are used to a limited extent. However, as more information becomes available at the molecular level, traits such as these could play a more important role in arachnid classification.
Annotated classification
- Class Arachnida (arachnids)
- Approximately 90,000 species classified in 13 orders, found nearly worldwide. Chelicerate arthropods with adult body composed of 18 somites organized into 2 major structures, the prosoma, or cephalothorax (6 somites), and posterior opisthosoma, or abdomen (12 somites); prosoma has 6 pairs of appendages, 4 pairs used for walking, last 2 pairs lost in some mites; instinctive behaviour highly developed.
- Order Opiliones or Phalangida (daddy longlegs or harvestmen)
- 7,000 species found nearly worldwide. Size 1–22 mm; some regions of the abdomen fused with carapace; single pair of eyes usually on a central prominence.
- Order Pseudoscorpiones or Pseudoscorpionida (false scorpions or book scorpions)
- 2,000 species found nearly worldwide. Size 1–7.5 mm; abdomen often subdivided dorsally; movable projection on the abdomen with spinneret.
- Order Scorpiones or Scorpionida (scorpions)
- 1,400 species described, widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. Size 1.4–21 cm; taillike portion ending in a stinger; 1st pair of appendages (chelicerae) pincerlike and 3-jointed; ovoviviparous rather than egg-laying.
- Order Solpugida or Solifugae (sunspiders or wind scorpions)
- 900 species widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. Size 10–50 mm; abdomen 10 or 11 segments.
- Order Schizomida (schizomids)
- 110 primarily tropical species. Size 2–15 mm; 2-segmented chelicerae.
- Order Uropygi (whip scorpions or vinegarroons)
- 105 tropical and subtropical species all belonging to 1 family (Thelyphonidae). Size to 13 cm; long whiplike “tail” (telson); fossils nearly identical with living forms.
- Order Amblypygi (tailless whip scorpions)
- 70 species widespread in tropical and subtropical regions. Size 0.8–4.5 cm; cephalothorax broader than long; 8 eyes; pedipalps very long and strong.
- Order Palpigradi (micro whip scorpions)
- 70 mainly tropical species. Size 0.8–2.6 mm; carapace subdivided into 3 parts; eyes absent; 3-jointed leglike pedipalps; long, thin, and multisegmented “tail” (telson); no book lungs or tracheae.
- Order Ricinulei (ricinuleids)
- 30 primarily tropical species. Size 8–10 mm; abdomen of 9 segments, last 3 forming taillike pygidium; 6-legged larval form.
- Subclass Acari, Acarina, or Acarida (mites and ticks)
- Approximately 50,000 species found nearly worldwide. Size from 0.008 to 3 cm in some fully engorged ticks; body segments fused; mouthparts adapted to piercing, sucking, biting, grating, or sawing; many parasitic and economically important.
- Superorder Acariformes (mites)
- at least 30,000 species. Eyes present or absent; habitats from aquatic to terrestrial; predatory to parasitic.
- Superorder Parasitiformes (mites and ticks)
- at least 11,000 species. Body usually hardened; 1st pair of legs have sensory organs.
- Superorder Opilioacariformes or order Opilioacarida
- found in North America and parts of the Mediterranean region, all of 1 family. Body of 12 segments, divided into hairy anterior portion with 2 or 3 pairs of eyes.
