• Order Heteroptera (true bugs)

  Wings, when present, usually number four that may vary in size; basal portion of forewings thick and leathery, apical portion membranous; hindwings membranous, slightly shorter than forewings; wings at rest held flat over abdomen; piercing-sucking mouthparts arise from front part of head; compound eyes usually well developed; two simple eyes, or ocelli, present or absent; scent glands usually present; gradual metamorphosis; widely distributed, terrestrial and aquatic species number more than 40,000.

  • Suborder Hydrocorisae (or Cryptocerata)

    Neither cephalic nor abdominal trichobothria; antennae 4-segmented, shorter than head, usually in grooves on underside of head; semiaquatic (Gelastocoridae, Ochteridae) or aquatic (all other families); swimming members with fringe of swimming hairs on hind legs; aquatic members lay eggs in or on submerged exposed objects, are relatively active under water during winter; probably all males, and some females, stridulate; important food for fish, some water birds.

    • • Family Corixidae (water boatmen)

        Head overlaps front of prothorax; scutellum small, usually concealed by pronotum; front legs short, 1-segmented tarsus with fringe of long hairs beneath for gathering food; middle legs long, slender, for submerged anchoring; males with stridular pegs on front femurs and tibiae of legs, a polished black strigil above on asymmetrical abdomen; females nonstridulatory, abdomen symmetrical; colour pattern commonly alternating light and dark transverse stripes; inhabit fresh, brackish, or salt (Great Salt Lake) waters; use diving air stores; phytophagous on algae and diatoms, but may eat insect larvae; more than 300 species; in all major faunal regions.

      • Family Notonectidae (backswimmers)

        Head not overlapping prothorax; scutellum large, exposed; all legs long and slender, hind pair longest; male stridulating mechanism involving front legs and labium; inhabits fresh and mineral waters; diving air stores trapped under hairs on underside of abdomen, hence inverted position in swimming; bite painful to humans; predatory on insects, small crustaceans, fish, and tadpoles; in all zoogeographical regions.

      • Family Pleidae

        Very small, stout, convex above; scutellum large, exposed; hindwings reduced or absent; head and pronotum partially or wholly fused; inhabit fresh waters; about 20 species; in all zoogeographic regions.

      • Family Helotrephidae

        Like Pleidae; about 15 species; only in Asia, Africa, and South America.

      • Family Nepidae (water scorpions)

        Body stout to very slender; legs long, generally slender, front pair adapted for grasping; abdomen of most nymphs and adults with snorkel-like breathing tube at tip; nymphs and adults stridulate by opposable files on anterior coxae and coxal cavity plates; inhabit fresh water; swim poorly or not at all; predatory; principal food, other insects; nearly 200 species; in all zoogeographical regions.

      • Family Belostomatidae (giant water bugs and toe biters)

        Large, some species exceeding 109 millimetres (4 inches) in length; broad, flattened body; middle and hind legs markedly flattened, with swimming hairs; inhabits fresh water; may lie in mud or debris on bottom; can inflict severe bites; predatory; aggressive, strong swimmers; grasping front legs capture insects, fishes, frogs; approximately 100 species; in New World, Asia, and Africa (including Madagascar).

      • Family Naucoridae (creeping water bugs)

        Head large, inserted into thorax; scutellum large, exposed; front femurs enlarged, tibiae opposable; middle and hind legs slender, sometimes with fringing hairs; inhabit fresh water, often warm springs; generally use diving air storage chambers or “plastron” respiration; predatory mostly on mollusks and insects; about 150 species; most common in tropical continents, ranging north into Europe and North America; subfamily Aphelocheirinae uses plastron respiration, sometimes elevated to family rank.

      • Family Gelastocoridae (toad bugs)

        Broadly oval in shape, roughened surface, elevated protuberant eyes; resemble tiny toads; beak reaching only to coxae of front legs; broadened front femurs and opposable tibiae form effective grasping organ; middle and hind legs slender for running, lack fringing hairs; inhabit shores, burrows into mud or sand to lay eggs; predatory principally on small insects; about 100 species; in all zoogeographic regions.

      • Family Ochteridae (velvety shore bugs)

        Similar to Gelastocoridae in general appearance; body surface smooth, with velvety pile; beak reaches abdomen; found among plants growing along margins of ponds and streams; predatory upon other insects; about 25 species; in all zoogeographic regions.

  • Suborder Amphibicorisae

    Trichobothria on head but not on abdomen; members generally live on the water’s surface film or on mud or sand; predatory on tiny animals, including injured or freshly-killed insects; nonstridulating except for both sexes of genus Stridulovelia (Veliidae); within one species individuals may vary from winged to wingless.

    • • Family Gerridae (water striders; pond skaters)

        Slender bodied; legs long, slender, front pair short, used for support or grasping prey; middle pair longest, used for propulsion over water surface; hind femurs extends beyond tip of abdomen; tips of tarsi project beyond insertion of claws; body covered below with hydrofuge hairs; on quiet or flowing fresh or marine water; Halobates occurs on open oceans hundreds of miles from land; predatory generally on insects; oceanic forms feed on plankton and floating jellyfishes; about 350 species; in all zoogeographic regions and intervening oceans between 40° north and 40° south latitudes.

      • Family Veliidae (smaller water striders)

        Habits and structures similar to Gerridae, but generally smaller, stouter bodied, and with hind femurs not reaching beyond tip of abdomen; two genera with last segment of middle tarsus split and with collapsible, fan-shaped tuft of long hairs used for propulsion over water surface; about 300 species; in all zoographic regions, genus Trochopus marine, but not in open sea.

      • Family Hydrometridae (marsh treaders)

        Body, head, and legs long and slender; claws arise at tip of tarsus; wings present or absent; crawl weakly and clumsily among emergent plants in fresh water; predatory; more than 100 species; mostly tropical, a few species in North America and Eurasia.

      • Family Mesoveliidae (water treaders)

        Small; body and legs slender; live on fresh water, especially among emergent plants or on saturated mud; one New Guinea species lives on the forest floor away from water; about 30 species; in all zoogeographical regions.

      • Family Saldidae (shore bugs)

        Head large; eyes prominent; labium apparently 3-segmented, long, first segment very short and stout, second very long; legs long and slender for running or leaping; generally inhabit land surfaces near fresh or salt water; some species live on rocks in the intertidal zone, hide in air trapped in crevices when rocks are covered at high tide; predatory on small or crippled insects; over 200 species, in all zoogeographic regions.

      • Family Leptopodidae

        Like Saldidae; all 24 species native to Old World, one Mediterranean species established in New World (California).

      • Family Hebridae (velvet water bugs)

        Tiny, covered with hydrofuge hairs suitable to habitat on surface or along edges of bodies of still, fresh water; sometimes crawl into the water; food habits not known; about 120 species; in all zoogeographic regions; some widely distributed species may have been carried in drinking water on early sailing ships.

      • Family Leotichiidae

        Structure suggestive of Saldidae but distinguished by strong median ridge on pronotum; habits unlike Hebridae; one of the two known species (both from southeastern Asia) occurs in caves.

  • Suborder Geocorisae

    Trichobothria either present on abdomen or absent from both abdomen and head; antennae longer than head; difficult suborder to define; perhaps a convenient ecological (rather than a taxonomic) category better replaced by elevation of the two series to suborders; terrestrial; habits and foods varied.

    • Series Cimicomorpha

      Trichobothria absent from head and abdomen; front wings with or without a cuneus (special region on hardened basal portion known as the corium).

      • Family Miridae (plant bugs)

        Small, fragile; ocelli absent; labium 4-segmented; front wing with cuneus, membranous area with 1 or 2 closed cells; legs slender to stout, for walking, running, or jumping; predatory, phytophagous, or both; often host-specific; includes major crop pests (e.g., “lygus bugs” of the Northern Hemisphere, the “tea blight” [Helopeltis] in southeastern Asia), also several important predators of small insects; about 10,000 species; in all zoogeographic regions; found north of the Arctic Circle.

      • Family Cimicidae (bedbugs)

        Oval to elongate oval, very flat; eyes small; forewings reduced to small, transversely oval pads exposing most of abdomen; hindwings absent; bloodsucking parasites of mammals and birds, usually present on host only while feeding, otherwise hiding in crevices in nest or lair; eggs glued to walls of crevices; contains the two species of bedbugs that attack humans, Cimex lectularius (originally in Europe and North America, now in all parts of the world) and Cimex hemipterus (common in southern Asia and Africa); C. lectularius probably encountered cave-dwelling humans; not yet conclusively proven as carriers of any human diseases even though the bug can be successfully infected with some human parasites; about 75 species; found throughout the world but show marked parallels with ranges of their hosts.

      • Family Reduviidae (assassin bugs)

        Head usually protruding; beak short, 3-segmented, strongly curved away from underside of head, with tip in deep stridular groove between front coxae; front legs adapted for grasping; prey on insects and other small animals; genus Triatoma and some close relatives suck blood of mammals (including humans) and are carriers of the tropical American Chagas disease; can inflict painful bites; nearly 4,000 species; on all significant landmasses.

      • Family Anthocoridae (anthocorid bugs)

        Ocelli and cuneus present; membrane of wing with or without veins; male external genitalia asymmetrical; predatory, mostly on small arthropods, including their eggs; some eat ants; others inhabit bird nests; may bite humans; about 400 species; in all zoogeographic regions.

      • Family Polyctenidae (bat bugs)

        Oval; flattened; eyeless; front forewings, rudimentary, unhinged; hindwings absent; head and certain other parts with transverse rows of spines forming ctenidia (combs); eggs hatch within female, young nymphs retained in body and nourished by mother through a pseudoplacenta; bloodsuckers live entire life in fur of certain bats; 20 species; found from southern North America to South America, in Africa, and from southern Asia to Java.

      • Family Aradidae (flat bugs)

        Extremely flat; surface usually rough; head horizontal; clypeus prominently convex; ocelli absent; legs short; tarsi two-segmented; abdomen much wider than wings when present; found in crevices, as under loose bark or debris on the ground; feed on molds or fungi; nearly 1,000 species in all zoogeographic regions; sometimes part of group separated as family Dysodiidae.

      • Family Tingidae (lace bugs)

        Head small, without ocelli; antennae slender to stout, generally with first 2 segments very short, 3rd long; pronotum and forewings often finely to coarsely reticulate (lacy); tarsi 2-segmented; phytophagous, on anything from mosses to flowering plants, often host-specific; several species are common pests on maize, cotton, cacao, and other cultivated plants; almost 800 species; in all zoogeographic regions.

      • Family Nabidae (nabid bugs)

        Ocelli present; beak 4-segmented, long, generally curved away from underside of head; no striated groove between front coxae of legs; front legs more or less thickened for grasping; forewings without a cuneus; predatory on soft-bodied insects; frequently investigated as a possible biological control agent for insect pests of field crops; about 300 species; in all regions of the world.

      • Family Phymatidae (ambush bugs)

        Stout; surface roughened by tubercles; beak short, 3-segmented, curved away from underside of head, tip resting in stridular groove between front coxae and legs; 4th antennal segment conspicuously thickened; front femurs of legs strongly thickened; scutellum small and triangular or large, broad, and reaching tip of abdomen; predatory, generally, lying among flower petals awaiting prey; more than 200 species; found on all major continents except Australia; not found on oceanic islands.

      • Family Enicocephalidae (unique-headed bugs)

        Predatory; about 130 species; in all zoogeographic regions.

      • Family Dipsocoridae (or Cryptostemmatidae or Ceratocombidae)

        Biology poorly known; about 200 species; in all zoogeographic regions, more than half of species found in tropical America.

      • Family Isometopidae

        Phytophagous; less than 60 species; sometimes reduced to a subfamily in the Miridae.

      • Family Joppeicidae

        The sole species occurs in the eastern Mediterranean region.

      • Family Microphysidae

        Predatory; about 25 species; found in Eurasia and North America; 1 African genus questionably placed here.

      • Family Schizopteridae

        About 100 species; sometimes united with the Dipsocoridae (see above).

      • Family Termitaphididae

        Lives with termites; includes 9 species; found in tropical America, Africa, India, and Australia.

      • Family Thaumastocoridae (or Thaumastotheriidae)

        Phytophagous; about 12 species; found in Australia, India, North and South America, and the Greater Antilles.

      • Family Velocipedidae

        Predatory; 4 species; in the Orient.

      • Family Vianaididae

        Lives with ants (myrmecophilous); 4 species; found in tropical America.

    • Series Pentatomomorpha (or Trichophora)

      Trichobothria on abdomen; cuneus always absent; terrestrial; various habits and foods.

      • Family Pentatomidae (stinkbugs)

        Head with side margins generally expanded over bases of antennae; ocelli usually present; antennae usually 5-segmented; scutellum large to very large, triangular or U-shaped; without claval commissure; tibiae without rows of spines; phytophagous or predatory, sometimes within same species; several important pests, including the southern green stinkbug (Nezara viridula), a serious pest of fruit and vegetable crops throughout the world; the harlequin cabbage bug (Murgantia histrionica), on North American cruciferous crops; the senn bugs (Eurygaster species), on small grains in the Old World—several genera (Podisus, Zicrona) feed on caterpillars and other larvae; about 5,000 species; in all zoogeographic regions; taxonomy unsettled, especially assignment of taxonomic levels; definition and relationships of subgroups not in dispute.

      • Family Plataspidae

        Oval to transversely oval; head small, inserted deeply into prothorax; scutellum large, broadly U-shaped, reaching apex of abdomen; forewings much longer than body; wing membrane transversely folded at base and inserted under scutellum; tibiae not spined; phytophagous; about 500 species; found only in the Old World.

      • Family Cydnidae (burrower bugs)

        Scutellum triangular or broadly U-shaped; forewings without claval commissure (except genus Amnestus); tibiae with rows of spines; colour generally brown or black, sometimes with creamy markings; phytophagous, most species in soil feed on roots of host; more than 750 species; in all zoogeographic regions; subfamily Thyreocorinae (or Corimelaeninae) sometimes given family status.

      • Family Coreidae

        Antennae 4-segmented, inserted on or above imaginary line connecting middle of eye to front end of buccula (cheek plates); ocelli present; forewings with claval commissure; wing membrane with numerous interconnected veins; appendages often with leaflike expansions; phytophagous, some as pests of cultivated plants, for example, the squash bug (Anasa tristis) on cucurbit crops in North America, a rice bug (Leptocorisa varicornis) in the Orient; more than 2,000 species; in all zoogeographic regions; subfamilies Alydinae and Rhopalinae (or Corizinae) sometimes given family status.

      • Family Berytidae, or Neididae (stilt bugs)

        Body slender, narrowly elongate; legs extremely long, linear; labium 4-segmented; usually phytophagous, sometimes attack soft-bodied plant-feeding insects; more than 100 species; in all zoogeographic regions.

      • Family Piesmatidae

        Juga (2 outer lobes of head) extend as a pair of horizontal, hornlike projections; prothorax with a deep pit below expanded sides; forewings, except apical part of membrane, with numerous coarse punctures; phytophagous, most frequently on plants of the goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae); proven vectors of viral diseases of sugar beets in Europe and North America; about 20 species; in all zoogeographic regions.

      • Family Lygaeidae

        Antennae 4-segmented, inserted on side of head below an imaginary line connecting middle of eye to front end of buccula; ocelli present except in brachypterous forms; forewings with a claval commissure; wing membrane with 4 or 5 simple, longitudinal veins; phytophagous (on sap or seeds) or predatory (on mites and small insects); pests include the chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus) of North America, the Old World cotton stainer (Oxycarenus hyalinipennis), and several species of false chinch bugs in the widely distributed genus Nysius; in North America Geocoris, considered beneficial, feed upon mites and small insects attacking crop plants; contains between 3,000 and 5,000 species found in all parts of the world, including many small islands.

      • Family Largidae

        Head triangular, without ocelli; forewings with claval commissure; female with 6th visible abdominal segment below cleft medially; phytophagous; habits not well known; of no economic importance; about 100 species; in all zoogeographic regions.

      • Family Pyrrhocoridae (fire bugs, cotton stainers)

        Head triangular, without ocelli; forewings with long claval commissure; female with 6th visible abdominal segment below entire; phytophagous or predatory; cotton stainers (Dysdercus†), serious pests of cotton crops; some species (e.g., genus Dindymus) feed on flies as adults, nymphs prefer termites; more than 300 species; in all zoogeographic regions.

      • Family Aphylidae

        Two species in Australia.

      • Family Colobathristidae

        Phytophagous; about 90 species; inhabit Neotropical, Oriental, and Australian regions; unknown in North America, Europe, and Africa.

      • Family Hyocephalidae

        One species in Australia.

      • Family Lestoniidae

        Two species in Australia.

      • Family Phloeidae

        Three species in tropical America, 1 in Borneo.

      • Family Stenocephalidae

        About 40 species; except for 1 species on the Galapagos Islands, all known species live in Eurasia and Africa.

      • Family Urostylidae

        Approximately 50 species confined to Asia and Australia.

Critical appraisal

The classification of the Heteroptera is in a state of flux due to continuous investigations in ontogeny, genetics, ecology, and morphology. Not all results are in agreement, suggesting that important changes probably will occur. Wide disparity in superfamily concepts has resulted in dropping them from the above classification of the heteropterans.

The division of the order into three suborders is generally accepted, even if only for convenience; the prefixes reflect the broad ecological habits of the families included. Hydrocorisae reflects the adaptation of most of its families (Gelastocoridae and Ochteridae excepted) for life under water. Amphibicorisae suggests the land and water habits of these insects that live on the surface of the water or along shores. Geocorisae reflects the preferred terrestrial habitats of members of this group.