Classification

Distinguishing taxonomic features

The chief characteristics used in the ordinal, subordinal, and family-level classification of the Lepidoptera are: the mouthparts, ranging from mandibulate to haustellate (with a proboscis) or degenerate; the venation and shape of the wings, homoneurous (the venation of the forewings and hind wings alike) or heteroneurous (forewings and hind wings different), aculeate (more or less covered with specialized bristles called microsetae) or nonaculeate, and type of coupling (jugum or frenulum); the anatomy of the female reproductive system; the exarate or obtect condition of the pupa; and the larval structure and pattern of the primary setae.

The venation of the wings is perhaps the most important single criterion for establishing both differences and relationships in the classification. However, venation patterns must be considered in terms of the evolution of these patterns from primitive to advanced conditions within individual phyletic lines. The most primitive groups tend to have the maximum number of veins and branches in each wing. More advanced groups lack some veins or branches in the forewing and have the hind-wing venation considerably reduced.

The structures of the genitalia are extremely important in classification, often serving better than any other characteristics to distinguish the species. The various parts have been homologized with each other, thus enabling comparative studies of families, genera, and species.

The female genitalia exhibit a number of different patterns of the internal ducts and the openings. These vary from a condition in which there are no special genital openings, with insemination and egg laying (oviposition) taking place through a single aperture shared with the excretory system, to one in which there are two specialized openings, one for insemination and one for oviposition, both of which are distinct from the anus.

Annotated classification

The classification presented follows Niels P. Kristensen (1999). Classification systems vary in the way they categorize taxonomic groups. Traditional taxonomic schemes gather superfamilies and families into suborders; more recent systematic schemes have abandoned suborders in favour of less rigidly organized clades. In the scheme followed below, neither suborders nor clades are indicated; instead, only superfamilies and families are shown. Of the 46 lepidopteran superfamilies, 24 are presented below, representing all the commonly encountered families of moths, butterflies, and skippers. Superfamilies and families not presented below include all moths that are rarely seen.

• Order Lepidoptera

  Insects with complete metamorphosis; the wings covered with flat scales; larval mouthparts mandibulate; adult mouthparts mandibulate to haustellate, sometimes vestigial; wings with venation ranging from primitive (complex) to considerably reduced, especially in the hind wings; pupae exarate to obtect; almost all phytophagous (herbivorous).

  • Superfamily Noctuoidea

    Almost 52,000 species in 8 families; adults with a pair of complex tympanic organs on metathorax.

    • Family Noctuidae (owlet moths)

      More than 35,000 species worldwide; abundant everywhere with a great diversity of size, colour, and habit; sizes range from a wingspan of 10 mm (0.4 inches; Hypenodes) to 275 mm (Thysania); many species brightly coloured, but the majority are plain and cryptic; nearly every type of plant material is exploited as food: foliage, flowers, fruits, stems, rootstocks, and woodland litter; a few genera (e.g., Cosmia) cannibalistic; family includes the armyworms and cutworms, among the most injurious of all moth larvae to human interests.

    • Family Arctiidae (tiger moths)

      Approximately 10,000 species worldwide; adults usually brightly coloured, especially in tropics; aposematic coloration, with protective and toxic secretions; timbal organ for making very high-pitched sounds located on each side of the metathorax; larvae often with much secondary hair; several other families, chiefly tropical, are closely related and also have timbal organs.

    • Family Lymantriidae (tussock moths)

      More than 2,500 species worldwide, but mainly in Old World tropics; adult females heavy-bodied, sometimes wingless; many larvae with prominent tussocks and pencils of hair, poison spines, and protrusions that emit repellent odours (osmeteria); some—e.g., the gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) and the nun moth (L. monacha)—are very destructive to forests; closely related Thaumetopoeidae of the Old World are best known for the gregarious habits of the larvae (processionary caterpillars), which move in orderly columns.

    • Family Notodontidae (prominent moths)

      More than 2,800 species worldwide, except New Zealand and Pacific islands; adult coloration mostly dull, cryptic; larvae very diverse with cryptic, disruptive, or aposematic coloration; some protected by toxic secretions; posterior prolegs often modified or aborted; chiefly foliage eaters.

  • Superfamily Pyraloidea

    Approximately 17,800 species in 2 families worldwide; most with a pair of tympanal organs on the first abdominal segment; adults usually slender-bodied with long legs; many with narrow forewings and broad, often folded, hind wings.

    • Family Pyralidae (pyralid, or snout, moths)

      Approximately 6,130 species of small moths, mostly plain, often abundant, with many important pest species; differentiated from other families by wing venation; small subfamily Nymphulinae has aquatic larvae with tracheal gills for living in still or running fresh water; larvae of subfamily Pyralinae are mostly scavengers, as are those of the Galleriinae, many of which live in bee or wasp nests; larvae of the large subfamily Phycitinae have very diverse habits, including predation on scale insects.

    • Family Crambidae (webworms)

      Approximately 11,600 species worldwide; small, often abundant moths, many larvae producing silk webbing in feeding sites; subfamily Crambinae contains almost 1,900 species, larvae feeding mainly on roots, grasses, or mosses on the ground or boring into stems of grasses, sedges, or rushes; subfamily Pyraustinae contains more than 7,400 species, feeding mainly on stems and fruits of various plants; many Pyraustinae species are considered pests, but some have been used in management of aquatic weeds.

  • Superfamily Geometroidea

    Almost 22,000 species; adults with abdominal tympana; some authorities classify each of the 3 major families as a separate superfamily.

    • Family Geometridae (measuring worm, or inchworm, moths)

      Approximately 21,000 species, abundant worldwide; adults and larvae commonly very cryptic, resembling bark, dead leaves, and twigs; larvae (“inchworms”) long, slender, lacking most posterior abdominal prolegs, crawling with characteristic looping gait; pupation usually in the soil, with no cocoon; many species destructive to foliage—e.g., cankerworms (Alsophila and Paleacrita) and the winter moth (Operophtera brumata).

    • Family Uraniidae (swallowtail moths)

      Approximately 700 chiefly tropical species; some adults are large, brilliantly iridescent diurnal moths; the Asian Epicopeia (family Epicopeiidae) mimic swallowtail butterflies.

  • Superfamily Drepanoidea

    Approximately 700 species worldwide in 2 families.

    • Family Drepanidae (hooktip moths)

      Approximately 650 species worldwide, chiefly Indo-Australian; many of the adults have the forewing apexes strongly hooked; larvae usually lack last pair of prolegs; subfamilies Thyatirinae and Epibleminae sometimes classified as families.

    • Family Epicopeiidae (epicopeiid moths)

      25 species in Arctic and tropical Asia; colourful day-flying moths that often mimic butterflies and other colourful moths such as the Arctiidae; larvae feed on foliage of woody plants.

  • Superfamily Gelechioidea

    More than 16,000 species worldwide; adults mostly larger and broader winged than Tineoidea; larvae seldom leaf miners; pupae relatively immobile.

    • Family Gelechiidae (twirler moths)

      More than 4,500 species of small to minute moths, worldwide in distribution; larvae diverse, eating leaves, stems, fruit, and tubers, including a few gall makers; serious economic pests include the pink bollworm of cotton and the Angoumois grain moth (Sitotroga cerealella).

    • Family Cosmopterigidae (cosmopterigid moths)

      More than 1,600 species of small moths, worldwide in distribution; many adults are very narrow-winged with bright, often metallic markings; in addition to leaf miners, rollers, and tiers, larvae include stem, fruit, and seed borers as well as scavengers.

    • Family Coleophoridae (casebearer moths)

      Approximately 1,400 species, mainly Holarctic in distribution; small, very narrow-winged moths; larvae mostly mine leaves or feed on seeds; many larvae construct portable cases with distinctive shapes; some are pests of fruit trees.

    • Family Oecophoridae (oecophorid moths)

      More than 3,100 small species worldwide; adults tend to be flat-bodied and somewhat broader-winged than related groups; related families: Elachistidae, Xylorictidae.

  • Superfamily Papilionoidea (butterflies)

    14,000 species, all families worldwide; adults with clubbed but not hooked antennae; flight slower than moths and not darting; larvae lacking “neck”; general evolutionary trend has been from a primitive condition of fully developed forelegs in both sexes (Pieridae, Papilionidae) to one in which they are greatly reduced and useless for walking (Nymphalidae); intermediate conditions occur in Lycaenidae; pupae (“chrysalides”) often brightly coloured and irregularly shaped, not enclosed in cocoons.

    • Family Lycaenidae (blues, coppers, hairstreaks, and metalmarks)

      6,000 small and diverse species; many iridescent blue, green, or metallic orange; some adults have thin tails on the trailing margin of the hind wing; larvae somewhat sluglike, hairy, many secreting honeydew and having mutualistic relationships with ants; some prey on the ant brood or on other insects; many pupae have stridulatory structures on the abdomen.

    • Family Nymphalidae (brush-footed butterflies)

      Approximately 6,000 species, often split into several families that here are considered subfamilies; Nymphalinae is the main subfamily, with many familiar species such as the fritillaries, admirals, checkerspots, and anglewings; many tropical species brilliantly iridescent; Satyrinae contains the familiar wood nymphs, meadow browns, and heaths, usually with eyespots on the wings; larvae distinctively pointed at the rear; spin crude cocoons; the Libytheinae (snout butterflies) are so named because of their long protruding palps; the very large Brassolinae and iridescent Morphinae are Neotropical, as are the highly distasteful, aposematic Heliconiinae and Ithomiinae that, with the worldwide Danainae, are models in many mimicry complexes; most of the pantropical Acraeinae are also highly protected and aposematic models; some nymphalids, such as the monarch butterfly, are migratory.

    • Family Pieridae (white, orange-tip, and sulfur butterflies)

      Approximately 1,000 small to medium-size species; no native species are found in New Zealand; mostly white, yellow, or orange, often with dark tips on wings; pupae usually with a frontal horn on head; many species noted for mass migrations.

    • Family Papilionidae (swallowtails and parnassians)

      600 medium to large species, often brightly coloured; many have the “swallowtails” on the hind wings; some females of the Indo-Australian birdwings (Troides) are the largest butterflies; larvae often curiously patterned, with eversible, protective scent organs (osmeteria); adults of many are highly distasteful and much mimicked; parnassians sometimes placed in a separate family, Parnassiidae.

  • Superfamily Tortricoidea

    6,100 species in 1 family; adults with fairly broad, short-fringed wings that seldom span more than 2.5 cm (1 inch); most have cryptic coloration and patterns; larvae mostly leaf folders and rollers, but many bore in fruits, seeds, and soft stems.

    • Family Tortricidae (leaf roller moths)

      Approximately 6,100 species worldwide; family large and diverse; most larvae are stem borers or leaf rollers or feed in leaf litter; larvae of the green leaf roller of Europe (Tortrix viridana) defoliate oak forests; the spruce budworm (Choristoneura fumiferana) is the worst forest pest of North America.

  • Superfamily Tineoidea

    More than 4,000 species worldwide; a large group of families of mostly small moths of diverse habits; all have some primitive venation features and life cycles; wings narrow to very narrow.

    • Family Tineidae (clothes moths and other tineid moths)

      Approximately 3,000 species worldwide; small narrow-winged moths with rough, hairy heads; larvae often casemakers, feeding on debris and fungi; clothes moths (Tineola, Tinea, Trichophaga) often serious household pests; related family: Acrolophidae (burrowing sod webworms).

    • Family Psychidae (bagworms)

      Almost 1,000 species worldwide; larvae live and pupate in often elaborate cases; adult males with broad, thin scaled wings; females wingless, often greatly degenerate and never leaving larval cases.

  • Superfamily Gracillarioidea

    Approximately 2,300 species worldwide; small moths; larvae are mainly leaf miners or stem borers

    • Families Gracillariidae and Douglasiidae

      Approximately 2,000 species worldwide whose larvae have degenerative legs and mandibles; adults with narrow, long-fringed wings often with metallic markings; larvae mostly leaf miners or stem borers, sometimes greatly flattened.

  • Superfamily Hesperioidea

    3,500 species worldwide in 1 family; similar to true butterflies, distinguished from moths by diurnal habits, clubbed antennae, a functional proboscis, and lack of ocelli; adults are fast-flying, with short, usually pointed forewings, broad heads, and antennae usually hooked beyond the club; larvae usually have a pronounced necklike collar.

    • Family Hesperiidae (skippers)

      3,500 species worldwide; adults range from small and drab to large and iridescent, especially in the tropics; larvae mostly live concealed in individual leaf nests or in webs among grasses, forming flimsy cocoons.

  • Superfamily Bombycoidea

    Approximately 3,400 species; adults large to very large; male antennae comblike in form.

    • Family Bombycidae (silkworm moths)

      350 species worldwide except Europe; most common in Asian and New World tropics; includes the domesticated silkworm (Bombyx mori); related family: Eupterotidae.

    • Family Saturniidae (giant silkworm moths)

      1,480 large species worldwide; larvae very large and fleshy, often with brightly coloured knobs and spines; most species spin firm cocoons of brown, green, or silvery silk; adults often with bright colours and striking wing shapes and patterns; males with broadly branched antennae, wingspan up to 275 mm (10.8 inches) in hercules moth (Coscinoscera hercules) of Australia and New Guinea, though every continent has some well-known species—e.g., the North American cecropia (Hyalophora cecropia), Io (Automeris io), polyphemus (Antheraea polyphemus), and luna (Actias luna); European giant peacock or emperor (Saturnia pavonia); and Indo-Australian atlas moth (Attacus atlas). Subfamily Citheroniinae (regal moths) are medium to very large New World species of heavy-bodied moths, often brightly coloured; larvae often with long spines—e.g., the North American Citheronia (hickory and pine horned devils); pupation in the ground, with no cocoon; related families: Brahmaeidae (African and Indo-Australian), Mimallonidae (New World).

    • Family Sphingidae (hawk, or sphinx, moths)

      1,200 medium-size to large species worldwide; adults powerful fliers with long, narrow forewings, thick antennae, and generally strong proboscises; feed by hovering before flowers and drawing nectar through the extended proboscis; some are diurnal, most are active at twilight (crepuscular); larvae large, fleshy, and mostly smooth; most have a single long posterior horn; typically rest with head and thorax reared, fancifully like the Sphinx at Giza, Egypt, in profile.

  • Superfamily Lasiocampoidea

    Approximately 1,600 species worldwide.

    • Family Lasiocampidae (tent caterpillar and lappet moths)

      1,500 species worldwide; larvae usually hairy and brightly coloured, some living gregariously in silk nests; adults medium-size, stout-bodied, short-winged, and exceptionally hairy.

  • Superfamily Zygaenoidea

    Approximately 2,500 species worldwide; wings broad to very broad with short fringes; some primitive adult, pupal, and larval features; pupae quite mobile.

    • Family Limacodidae, or Eucleidae (slug caterpillar moths)

      More than 1,000 species worldwide; larvae broad and flat, with reduced prolegs; move glidingly with head hidden beneath prothorax; many with toxic, irritant setae; adults with heavy hairy bodies and vestigial proboscises.

    • Family Megalopygidae (flannel moths)

      240 species in Central and South America; larvae similar to those of Limacodidae, but with normal prolegs and traces of additional ones; setae very toxic and nettling.

    • Family Zygaenidae (burnet and forester moths)

      More than 1,000 species, mainly in subtropical and tropical Asia and Palearctic regions; adults usually diurnal flower visitors, with bright colours and strong proboscises; strongly protected by high concentrations of hydrogen cyanide in blood; larvae are leaf skeletonizers; related families: Aididae and Chalcosiidae (Old World tropics); Pyromorphidae and Dalceridae (New World).

    • Family Epipyropidae (parasitic moths)

      40 chiefly Asian species; larvae live as external parasites on plant hoppers; related family: Cyclotornidae (Australian; larvae live similarly when young, then move to ants’ nests).

  • Superfamily Yponomeutoidea

    More than 1,500 species worldwide; a limited and not very distinctive superfamily; larvae possess distinctive primary setation.

    • Family Yponomeutidae (ermine moths)

      Almost 600 species worldwide; adults brightly coloured, especially in the tropics; pupae of some make lacework cocoons; related families: Plutellidae, Glyphipterygidae, Heliodinidae, Scythrididae.

  • Superfamily Sesioidea

    Approximately 1,200 species worldwide; most sesioid moths are diurnal with many aposematic adults.

    • Family Sesiidae (clearwing, or wasp, moths)

      More than 1,000 species worldwide; adults diurnal flower visitors; often brightly coloured with yellow, orange, or scarlet, the wings usually mostly transparent, often very striking mimics of wasps; larvae often are stem, twig, and root borers, often injurious to fruit trees.

    • Family Castniidae (castniid moths)

      Approximately 130 species in Central and South America; medium-size to large diurnal species of the New World and Indo-Australian tropics; adults powerful fliers, heavy-bodied and broad-winged; clubbed antennae, bright colours; often mimic other butterflies and diurnal moths; larvae are often stem borers.

  • Superfamily Cossoidea

    Approximately 700 species described; adults range from small to large, usually robust moths; males often with bipectinate antennae; larvae mainly stem or wood borers.

    • Family Cossidae (carpenterworm and goat moths)

      Almost 700 species described worldwide; medium-size to large moths; adults are the heaviest adult lepidopterans, with wingspans up to 25 cm (10 inches); larvae are wood borers, penetrating even solid heartwoods; may require at least 2 years to mature; some very destructive, including the coffee borer (Zeuzera coffeae) and leopard moth (Z. pyrina).

  • Superfamily Pterophoroidea

    Almost 1,000 species in 1 family.

    • Family Pterophoridae (plume moths)

      Almost 1,000 mainly tropical species; adults with very long, slender legs and bodies, the wings usually deeply cleft into plumes; larvae spin webs on and eat the leaves of various plants or bore into seeds, seedpods, roots, or stems.

  • Superfamily Alucitoidea

    Almost 150 species worldwide; this superfamily and the related Pterophoroidea are the only families with deeply lobed wings.

    • Family Alucitidae (many-plumed moths)

      130 species worldwide; each wing is very deeply cleft into 6 or more narrow plumelike divisions.

  • Superfamily Nepticuloidea

    Approximately 900 species worldwide; females with one genital opening and a soft ovipositor.

    • Family Nepticulidae (midget moths)

      800 species worldwide of very small to minute moths; antennae with broad “eyecaps” at the base; larvae mostly leaf and bark miners, a few gall makers.

    • Family Opostegidae

      Approximately 100 worldwide species of small moths with narrow long-fringed wings; larvae leaf, stem, or bark miners.

  • Superfamily Tischerioidea

    Approximately 80 species in a single family.

    • Family Tischeriidae (trumpet leaf miner moths)

      Approximately 80 species predominantly in North America; not found in Australia or the rest of Oceania.

  • Superfamily Incurvarioidea

    More than 500 species; all females with an extensible, piercing ovipositor for inserting eggs into plant tissue.

    • Family Incurvariidae (fairy, or leafcutter, moths)

      Approximately 100 species worldwide; many are small brilliantly coloured diurnal flower visitors; male antennae often several times as long as forewings; mutualistic relationships of the yucca moths (Prodoxinae) with their food plants are notable as an example of coevolution; family sometimes split into families Incurvariidae, Adelidae, and Prodoxidae; related family: Heliozelidae (shield bearers).

  • Superfamily Hepialoidea

    520 species; females with two genital openings; adult mouthparts reduced and nonfunctional, antennae very short.

    • Family Hepialidae (swifts, or ghost moths)

      Almost 500 species found worldwide but chiefly in Australia and New Zealand; medium-size to very large moths, some brilliantly coloured; larvae mostly bore in turf or wood; related families, less-known: Prototheoridae (Africa and Australia), Palaeosetidae (Australia), Anomosetidae (Australia).

  • Superfamily Micropterigoidea

    The most primitive lepidopterans; females with no special genital opening; larvae, pupae, and adults with mandibulate mouthparts.

    • Family Micropterigidae (mandibulate moths)

      120 small species, a few found in the Northern Hemisphere, more in Australia and New Zealand; adults eat pollen; larvae eat mosses and liverworts.

  • Superfamily Eriocranioidea

    24 species in 1 family; females with one genital opening, a long cloaca, and a piercing ovipositor; adults with a short proboscis; pupae with functional mandibles.

    • Family Eriocraniidae (sparkling archaic sun moths)

      24 species with a Holarctic distribution; often brilliantly coloured; adults feed on nectar; related families: Mnesarchiidae (New Zealand), Mesopseustidae (India and Taiwan).