Classification

Distinguishing taxonomic features

Skeletal features are of greatest importance in classifying the Perissodactyla. They are, of course, the only criteria applicable to fossil forms. Distinguishing characteristics of the skull include the relative length of the facial region, length and form of the nasal bones, presence of a postorbital bar and of hornlike structures. The form and number of teeth, presence of a diastema, number of molariform premolars, the height of the cheek teeth, their cusp structure and the presence or absence of cement on the grinding surfaces all are particularly valuable taxonomic features. The limb structure is also a useful aid to classification, especially the length of upper and lower portions, the degree to which the ulna and the fibula are reduced and fused, respectively, with the radius and the tibia, the number and form of carpal and tarsal bones, and the number and relative size of the digits.

Among living perissodactyls, body size, form of the upper lip, number and length of horns, structure of the skin and colour pattern are the most important features for classification.

Annotated classification

The classification presented here follows that of U.S. paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson, which is generally accepted but modified in some fairly minor ways by other authors. The term Mesaxonia, introduced by the 19th-century paleontologist O.C. Marsh, is essentially synonymous with Perissodactyla. Simpson used it as a convenient designation for the superorder containing the single order Perissodactyla, as he used the parallel name Paraxonia for the superorder with the one order Artiodactyla.

Groups indicated by a dagger (†) are known only as fossils.

• Order Perissodactyla

  Herbivorous ungulates with either 3 digits or 1, at least in the hindfeet. Early forms digitigrade, this feature either retained or completely replaced by the unguligrade condition in later representatives. The body weight borne mainly or entirely on the third digit through which the long axis of the limb passes (mesaxonic condition). The talus (heel bone) with only 1, proximal, keeled surface, articulating with the tibia, no duplication of keel on the distal surface, as in artiodactyls. Nasals broad at the posterior end, alisphenoid canal present. Posterior premolars molariform; cheek teeth bunodont in early forms, typically lophodont or selenolophodont, rectangular; wide diastema separates them from incisors and canines, which may be reduced or absent. Testes inguinal, occasionally scrotal; mammary glands inguinal, with 2 teats; uterus bicornuate. Fifteen living species, but more than 200 fossil forms.

  • Suborder Hippomorpha

    • Superfamily Equoidea

      Dentition complete, upper molars with 6 tubercles, the 2 external ones united to form an ectoloph, median and internal tubercles generally fused into a single loph. Tendency to molarization of premolars and reduction of lateral digits.

      • †Family Palaeotheriidae (paleotheres or “native horses”)

        Lower Eocene to lower Oligocene; Europe and Asia. Size variable, from that of fox (shoulder height about 40 centimetres or 16 inches) to that of a rhinoceros; body form tapirlike. Three digits in each foot. Dentition complete or first premolars absent; premolars molariform, separated from canines by diastema. Cheek teeth brachydont, lophodont, with or without cement. Orbits without postorbital bar. Eurasian “native horses,” 7 genera.

      • Family Equidae (horses and relatives)

        A progressive group with tendency to molarization of premolars and development of cement.

        • †Subfamily Hyracotheriinae (hyracotheres)

          Eocene: Europe and North America. Size about that of a fox; 4 toes in forefoot, 3 in hindfoot. Dentition complete, premolars simple or last 2 slightly molariform, molars brachydont, bunodont, diastema short. Skull short, without postorbital bar. Three genera. Basic stock from which other members of family evolved.

        • †Subfamily Anchitheriinae (anchitheres)

          Lower Oligocene to lower Pliocene. Fossils from North America, Europe, Asia. Browsing horses. Early forms collie-sized (shoulder height about 60 centimetres [23.6 inches]), end forms as large as a rhinoceros. Three toes in each foot, central toe somewhat enlarged; metapodials elongated. First premolars reduced, second to fourth molariform. Cheek teeth brachydont, lophodont; ectoloph (longitudinal outer crest) above typically W-shaped cross-lophs retained distinct cusps; hypostyle at back edge of upper molars prominent. Lower cheek teeth with 2 crescent-shaped lophs and double cusp at junction. Diastema long, no postorbital bar. Six genera.

        • Subfamily Equinae (horses, asses, half-asses, and zebras)

          Lower Miocene to Pleistocene of North America; Pleistocene of South America; lower Pliocene to Recent of Europe, Asia, and Africa. Most forms as large as ponies or modern horses. Feet with 3 toes in early forms, 1 in later forms (but metapodia 2 and 4 persist as remnants), limbs with progressively elongated lower segments and reduced or fused ulna and fibula. Calcaneum without articulating surface for fibula. First premolars reduced or absent, others molariform; cheek teeth hypsodont, selenolophodont, with cement; canines in long diastema. Skull long, with postorbital bar in upper Miocene and later forms; nasals long and narrow. Some Holocene forms with striped coat.

    • †Superfamily Brontotherioidea

      • †Family Brontotheriidae (titanotheres)

        Lower Eocene to lower Oligocene. Fossils from North America and Asia. Early forms as large as tapirs, end forms huge, standing 2.5 metres (8.2 feet) at the shoulder. Graviportal browsers; 4 toes in forefoot, 3 in hindfoot. Dentition complete, premolars small and simple in early forms; later forms with incisors and first premolars reduced or absent, remaining premolars only partly molarized. Molars large, bunolophodont, above with W-shaped ectoloph as in early equids, lower with double V resembling equid pattern but lacking reduplication of cusp at union of V’s. Skull elongated, low, without postorbital bar, with large rough, hornlike process in later forms. About 39 genera.

  • †Suborder Ancylopoda

    • • †Family Chalicotheriidae (chalicotheres)

        Upper Eocene to lower Pliocene. Fossils from North America, Europe, Asia. Early forms equivalent in size (and similar) to contemporary horses, Hyracotherium; later representatives larger, up to size of a modern horse. Most with forelegs longer than hindlegs and 3 toes in each foot; rudimentary metacarpal V retained in forefoot, most with clawlike digits. Incisors of canines reduced or absent; first premolar absent, remainder small and simple. Molars bunolophodont, cusp pattern similar to Brontotheriidae. About 13 genera. Aberrant perissodactyls which may have used claws to dig for bulbs and roots.

  • Suborder Ceratomorpha

    • Superfamily Tapiroidea

      Brachydont forms, molars with simple ectoloph and strongly developed transverse protoloph and metaloph. Forefoot generally with 4 toes, hindfoot with 3.

      • †Family Isectolophidae

        Lower to upper Eocene. Fossils from North America and Asia. Limb structure similar to that of Hyracotherium, teeth already tapiroid. Four genera.

      • †Family Helaletidae

        Lower Eocene to middle Oligocene. Fossils from North America and Asia. Skull advanced in structure; premolars much simpler than molars, molars of simple lophodont form. Ten to 12 genera.

      • †Family Lophiodontidae (lophiodonts)

        Lower to upper Eocene; Europe and probably Asia. Skull not tapir-like, lophs of molariform teeth oblique. About 6 genera.

      • Family Tapiridae (tapirs)

        Lower Eocene to Holocene. Fossils from North and South America, Europe, Asia, Africa. Recent species in Central and South America and Southeast Asia. Limited to tropical equatorial forests of South America and Asia. Browsers. Skull greatly modified; premolars completely molarized, first sometimes absent; transverse lophs strongly developed in molariform teeth, ectoloph simple. Limb structure primitive; 4 toes in forefoot; 3 in hindfoot. Six genera but only 1 extant.

    • Superfamily Rhinocerotoidea

      Molars brachydont, upper with 2 transverse lophs fused with a well-developed ectoloph; lower with 2 asymmetrical crescents. Premolars more or less molariform. Rough processes on nasals (for horns) frequently present; forefoot with 3 or 4 toes.

      • †Family Hyrachyidae

        Lower to upper Eocene; North America and probably Asia. Small animals; forefoot 4-toed; molariform teeth with separate tubercles. Four genera.

      • †Family Hyracodontidae (hyracodonts or running rhinoceroses)

        Middle Eocene to upper Oligocene. Fossils from North America and probably Asia. Relatively small; feet 3-toed, legs long and slender. Molariform teeth typically rhinocerotid. About 7 genera.

      • †Family Amynodontidae (amynodonts)

        Upper Eocene to middle Oligocene. Fossils from North America, Europe, Asia. Hippopotamus-like; forefoot 4-toed, hindfoot with 3 toes. Skull short, heavy, premolars and incisors reduced, premolars simple, canines and molars enlarged. Six genera.

      • Family Rhinocerotidae (rhinoceroses)

        Middle Eocene to present. Fossils from North America, Europe, Asia, and Africa. Now restricted to tropical Africa and Asia. Large; most forms 3-toed. Skull elongated, raised at posterior end. Dentition incomplete, upper canines always absent, some incisors usually enlarged as cutting teeth; premolars molariform, last upper molar simple. About 34 genera, 4 extant.

Critical appraisal

Systems of classification frequently differ in the status given to the chalicotheres. Simpson takes the view that their ancestry was probably equid and almost certainly hippomorph. He holds that the significance of their claws has been over-emphasized and has tended to distract attention from their true affinities. Accordingly he places them in the superfamily Chalicotheroidea of the suborder Hippomorpha. In the classification presented above they are given their own suborder, Ancylopoda, following the views of Alfred S. Romer, another authority on the group.

The forms united in the family Lophiodontidae by Simpson, followed here, are thought by some recent workers to warrant separation into three families. Romer distinguishes the families Lophialetidae, Deperetellidae, and Lophiodontidae. The affinities of certain primitive genera such as Hyrachus and Colonoceras remain controversial; Simpson places them in the family Hyrachyidae, superfamily Rhinocerotoidea. Romer considers them to be early tapiroids and assigns them to the Helatidae (superfamily Tapiroidea). The difference of opinion is slight, for it is generally agreed that the hyrachids are close in the common stem of the tapiroids and rhinocerotoids.