In the work of the earliest African writers in French can be found the themes that run through this literature to the present day. These themes have to do with African tradition, with French colonialism and the displacement of Africans both physically and spiritually from their native tradition, with attempts to blend the French and the African traditions, and with postindependence efforts to piece the shards of African tradition and the French colonial experience into a new reality.

In his novel Les Trois volontés de Malic (1920; “The Three Wishes of Malic”), the Senegalese writer Ahmadou Mapaté Diagne anticipates such later writers as Sheikh Hamidou Kane, also of Senegal. In Diagne’s novel, Malic, a Wolof boy, is embroiled in a struggle between Muslim tradition and the influence of the West. He goes to a French-run school to study; then, instead of going to Qurʾānic school as his parents wish, he becomes a blacksmith. Other early African works in French frequently deal with the tensions between country and city, between African and French culture, and between traditional religious practices and Islam. The novel Force-bonté (1926; “Much Good Will”), by Bakary Diallo of Senegal, deals with a youth caught in a conflict between his Muslim background and Western values and culture. The Beninese writer Paul Hazoumé wrote Doguicimi (1938; Eng. trans. Doguicimi), a historical novel depicting the time of the reign of the king Gezo in the ancient kingdom of Dahomey. Some writers focused solely on African tradition, with its positive and negative qualities; these writers include Félix Couchoro, whose novel L’Esclave (1929; “The Slave”) examines slavery in traditional Dahomey. The Senegalese writer Ousmane Socé wrote Karim (1935), a novel that depicts a young Wolof caught between traditional and Western values. He leaves the countryside for the Senegalese cities of Saint-Louis and Dakar but loses everything when he falls prey to the cities’ wiles; he returns, in the end, to traditional ways of living. The novel depicts the new society that was being born in early 20th-century Africa. Mirages de Paris (1937; “Mirages of Paris”) has to do with a Senegalese student in Paris who falls in love with a Frenchwoman. Abdoulaye Sadji of Senegal wrote Maïmouna (1958; Eng. trans. Maïmouna), about an African girl who leaves home and goes to Dakar, where she is seduced. She returns to her home and bears a child who dies; she becomes ill but then recovers her traditional roots.

Women’s place in Cameroonian society is the subject of Joseph Owono’s Tante Bella (1959; “Aunt Bella”), the first novel to be published in Cameroon. Paul Lomami-Tshibamba of Congo (Brazzaville) wrote Ngando le crocodile (1948; “Ngando the Crocodile”; Eng. trans. Ngando), a story rooted in African tradition. Faralako: roman d’un petit village africaine (1958; “Faralako: Novel of a Little African Village”), by Emile Cissé, is an early Guinean novel that examines African tradition and Western technology. Jean Malonga, born in Congo (Brazzaville), wrote Coeur d’Aryenne (1954; “Heart of Aryenne”), an anticolonial novel. Traditional African society is the primary concern of the novels Le Fils du fétiche (1955; “The Son of Charm”), by David Ananou of Togo, and Crépuscule des temps anciens (1962; “Twilight of the Ancient Days”), by Nazi Boni of Upper Volta (later Burkina Faso).

In Madagascar the journal La Revue de Madagascar (founded in 1933) encouraged writing by Malagasy writers and included the poetry of Jean-Joseph Rabéarivelo, whose La Coupe de cendres (1924; “Cutting the Ashes”) and Sylves (1927; “Forests”) were collections of poetry that sought to blend French and Malagasy cultural traditions and that shared many of the themes later taken up by the Negritude movement. Other early poets writing in French in Madagascar include Elie-Charles Abraham, E. Randriamarozaka, and Paul Razafimahazo. Édouard Bezoro produced one of the first Malagasy novels: La Soeur inconnue (1932; “The Unknown Sister”), a historical novel about the conflict between the French and the Merina (Hova) state in Madagascar at the turn of the 20th century. Michel-Francis Robinary founded the newspaper L’Éclair de l’Emyrne and wrote poetry collected in Les Fleurs défuntes (1927; “Dead Flowers”).

After World War I, many of the Africans who had served in the French army remained in France, bringing pressure on the country to end colonialism and political assimilation. They met with Blacks from the United States, and the result was a new concern with and pride in African cultural identity. This acknowledgement of blackness—of black roots, black history, and black civilizations—became part of the struggle against colonialism and evolved, under the tutelage of Léopold Senghor of Senegal, Aimé Césaire of Martinique, and Léon-Gontran Damas of French Guiana, into the movement that became known as Negritude. Césaire’s Cahier d’un retour au pays natal (1939; Notebook of a Return to the Native Land, or Return to My Native Land) and Senghor’s Anthologie de la nouvelle poésie nègre et malgache de langue française (1948; “Anthology of the New Black and Malagasy Poetry of the French Language”) are among the important works of this movement, as is Senghor’s own poetry, including Chants d’ombre (1945; “Songs of the Shade”) and Éthiopiques (1956). The struggle had earlier been waged in such short-lived journals as Légitime défense (1932; “Legitimate Defense”) and L’Étudiant noir (1935; “The Black Student”). In 1947 the journal Présence africaine (“African Presence”) was inaugurated; it would play a significant role in the encouragement and development of Francophone writing.

Birago Diop of Senegal wrote poetry (e.g., Leurres et lueurs [1960; “Lures and Gleams”]), some of which emphasizes its connections with the ancestral African past. In Madagascar Jacques Rabemananjara wrote verse, collected in such volumes as Sur les marches du soir (1942; “On the Edges of the Evening”), and plays, including Les Dieux malgaches (1947; “The Malagasy Gods”), that were part of the Negritude movement. Bernard Binlin Dadié of Côte d’Ivoire wrote the autobiographical Climbié (1956; Eng. trans. Climbié), a novel dealing with traditional African society and the modern world, as well as drama and lyrical poetry. Fily Dabo Sissoko of Mali emphasized African tradition in such works as Harmakhis: poèmes du terroir africain (1955; “Harmakhis: Poems of the African Land”) and Poèmes de l’Afrique noire (1963; “Poems from Black Africa”). Lamine Diakhaté of Senegal wrote Negritude poetry, as did the Senegalese Lamine Niang in Négristique (1968). David Diop of Senegal was a poet of protest in his Coups de pilon (1956; Hammer Blows). The Congolese poet Antoine-Roger Bolamba wrote Esanzo: Chants pour mon pays (1955; Esanzo: Songs for My Country), a collection of Negritude poetry.

In Côte d’Ivoire Anoma Kanie wrote love poetry (Les Eaux du Comoë [1951; “The Waters of the Comoë”]), as did Maurice Kone (La Guirlande des verbes [1961; “A Garden of Words”]). From Benin came such poets as Richard G. Dogbeh-David and Paulin Joachim. In Cameroon, Elolongué Epanya Yondo wrote Kamerun! Kamerun! (1960; “Cameroon! Cameroon!”), François Sengat-Kuo wrote Collier de cauris (1970; “Necklace of Cowry Shells”), and Jean-Paul Nyunaï wrote La Nuit de ma vie (1961; “The Darkness of My Life”). In Guinea prominent poets of the 20th century include Keita Fodeba, Mamadou Traoré (Ray Autra), and Condetto Nenekhaly-Camara. Other poets of the period include William J.F. Syad of Somalia and Toussaint Viderot Mensah of Togo. The novelist and poet Pierre Bamboté is among the Central African Republic’s most important writers of the 20th century. The Congolese writer Tchicaya U Tam’si published poetry dealing with colonialism (e.g., Epitomé [1962; “Epitome”] and Le Ventre [1964; “The Belly”]).

Sidiki Dembele of Mali wrote a novel, Les Inutiles (1960; “The Useless Ones”), urging African intellectuals to return to their traditional homes. Denis Oussou-Essui of Côte d’Ivoire published a novel in 1965 that also dealt with the strains between African tradition and urban life. Guinean Camara Laye wrote an autobiographical novel, L’Enfant noir (1953; The African Child). His most important publication was the novel Le Regard du roi (1954; The Radiance of the King), the story of Clarence, a white man, who, as he moves deeper and deeper into an African forest, is progressively shorn of his Western ways and pride. At his nadir, he begins anew, when, naked and alone, he embraces an ambiguous African king. Mongo Beti (a pseudonym of Alexandre Biyidi-Awala) of Cameroon wrote Le Pauvre Christ de Bomba (1956; The Poor Christ of Bomba), a story that deals with the complex relationship between Christianity and colonialism in Africa. His Mission terminée (1957; “The Finished Mission”; Eng. trans. Mission to Kala) treats the uneasy fit of traditional Africa and Western colonialism, and Le Roi miraculé (1958; Eng. trans. King Lazarus) depicts a generational struggle within the context of a quixotic view of African tradition. Another novelist from Cameroon, Benjamin Matip, wrote Afrique, nous t’ignorons (1956; “Africa, We Don’t Pay Attention to You”), which shows young people caught between the white man’s world and the traditional African world. Ferdinand Léopold Oyono, also a Cameroonian novelist, wrote Une Vie de boy (1956; “A Life of a Boy”; Eng. trans. Houseboy), the story of a boy, Toundi, who leaves his rural home and goes to the town of Dangan, where he becomes the servant for a French commandant and his wife. Toundi undergoes a type of puberty rite of passage as his experiences among the whites slowly reveal to him the masks that cover their religion, their justice system, and their family ideals. Oyono also wrote Le Vieux nègre et la médaille (1956; The Old Man and the Medal) and Chemin d’Europe (1960; The Road to Europe). The novels of Francis Bebey—Le Fils d’Agatha Moudio (1967; Agatha Moudio’s Son), La Poupée ashanti (1973; The Ashanti Doll), and Le Roi Albert d’Effidi (1976; King Albert)—show the influence of African oral tradition in their style and themes. In the earliest of those novels, a man falls in love, but his society clings to a tradition that will not allow him to marry the woman of his choice.

Ousmane Sembène was a major film director and a significant novelist. Les Bouts de bois de Dieu (1960; God’s Bits of Wood), his greatest novel, describes the last gasp of colonialism through the story of a railroad strike. In it Bakayoko is the spokesman for a future that will combine African humanism and European technology. The characters Fa Keïta, Penda, and Ramatoulaye are all committed to change; each one is involved in the strike, and each also demonstrates dignity and eloquence. Fa Keïta retains his nobility in the face of torture, Penda in the face of ostracism, and Ramatoulaye in the face of enormous want and deprivation. Through it all stands Bakayoko, who single-mindedly pursues change, although he understands that change cannot be abrupt; it must be anchored in the past. Hence his concern for tradition, of which the novel’s women are symbols. Seydou Badian Kouyaté of Mali wrote a play about the Zulu leader Shaka: La Mort de Chaka (1962; The Death of Shaka). Aké Loba of Côte d’Ivoire wrote Kocoumbo, l’étudiant noir (1960; “Kocoumbo, the Black Student”), which treats the negative efforts of France on traditional African values. His Les Fils de Kouretcha (1970; “The Sons of Kouretcha”) is a study of the effects of industrialization on traditional societies. Olympe Bhêly-Quénum of Benin wrote the novel Un Piège sans fin (1960; Snares Without End), which focuses on the African traditional past. The Senegalese writer Sheikh Hamidou Kane wrote L’Aventure ambiguë (1961; Ambiguous Adventure), a novel that considers the African and Muslim identity of its main character, Samba, within the context of Western philosophical thought. In his novel Le Soleil noir point (1962; “The Sun a Black Dot”), Charles Nokan of Côte d’Ivoire deals with efforts to bring a nation to freedom.

In Africa’s postindependence period, similar themes persisted but were readjusted to conform to worlds in which new societies were being forged. Many French-language novels of the last decades of the 20th century deal with familial struggles within a traditional society that can never again be the same. Maimouna Abdoulaye of Senegal wrote Un Cri du coeur (1986; “A Cry from the Heart”), a novel dealing with women living in an indifferent male society. Josette Abondio of Côte d’Ivoire is the author of Kouassi Koko…ma mère (1993; “Kouassi Koko…My Mother”), a novel about a woman whose existence narrows with the death of her male partner. Marie Thérèse Assiga-Ahanda of Cameroon wrote the novel Sociétés africaines et “High Society” (1978; “African Societies and ‘High Society’”), a story about two people returning to their country after colonialism, only to find a new kind of colonialism—an internal kind. Marie-Gisèle Aka of Côte d’Ivoire wrote Les Haillons de l’amour (1994; “The Remnants of Love”), a novel having to do with a girl’s difficulties with her father. A novel written in 1990 by Philomène Bassek of Cameroon deals with the plight of a mother of 11 children who has a harsh husband. Poverty and the upper classes preoccupy Aminata Sow Fall of Senegal in Le Jujubier du patriarche (1993; “The Patriarch’s Jujube”). The Gabonese writer Justine Mintsa writes of tragic life in a contemporary African village in a novel published in 2000.

The relationship between Africa and Europe remained a theme through the end of the 20th century. Aïssatou Cissokho, a Senegalese writer, in Dakar, la touriste autochtone (1986; “Dakar, the Native Tourist”), depicts a character returning from Europe and finding things much the same in Dakar. In a 1999 novel, the Cameroonian novelist Nathalie Etoké tells the story of an African who is an illegal immigrant in Paris. A young African woman in Paris is the focus of Gisèle Hountondji in Une Citronnelle dans la neige (1986; “Lemongrass in the Snow”). Henri Lopes is a Congolese novelist, as is Maguy Kabamba, who wrote La Dette coloniale (1995; “The Colonial Debt”), depicting Africa and Europe as seen through the eyes of a young African student.