Brazil can claim an enormous body of short-story writers from the 1920s and ’30s (e.g., Antônio Alcântara Machado and Rubem Braga) through the upsurge of the short story during the 1960s, ’70s, and ’80s. The short story, which is indebted to Machado de Assis’s social and psychological tales, flourished especially during the 20th century in the satires of the pre-Modernist Lima Barreto, in the personalist and innovative stories of Mário de Andrade, in the dreamlike and imaginative narratives of Aníbal Machado, and in the fantastic and allegorical short narratives of Murilo Rubião and José J. Veiga. Beginning in the 1950s, Dalton Trevisan, Brazil’s prolific short-story writer par excellence, immortalized lurid scenes of sex and death among the lower middle classes in O vampiro de Curitiba (1965; The Vampire of Curitiba, and Other Stories) and in numerous other collections. He also experimented with the short-story genre by creating ministories and prose haiku. Notable among short-story writers of the second half of the 20th century are Lygia Fagundes Telles, whose tales of women trapped in meaningless relationships sometimes take the form of political allegory, as in the collection Seminário dos ratos (1977; “Seminar of Rats”; Eng. trans. Tigrela and Other Stories); Sérgio Sant’Anna, a novelist whose stories in O concerto de João Gilberto no Rio de Janeiro (1982; “João Gilberto’s Concert in Rio de Janeiro”), all executed with sardonic humour, focus upon innovative art, sociopolitical criticism, and marginalized individuals; and Rubem Fonseca, whose incisively graphic crime narratives—from his censored collection Feliz Ano Novo (1975; “Happy New Year”) onward—depict the social inequities in urban Brazil as well as depraved members of the middle class. During the 1990s a new crop of younger writers surfaced under the rubric of the ’90s Generation (Geração 90), a term coined by the novelist and short-story writer Nelson de Oliveira, who used it in the title in two anthologies (2001 and 2003) in which he, as editor, collected these writers’ works.

The novel

The two outstanding Brazilian novelists of the 20th century, who are also regarded as master short-story writers, are Clarice Lispector and João Guimarães Rosa; both began writing in the 1940s. Beginning with her first novel, Perto do coração selvagem (1944; Near to the Wild Heart), Lispector created introspective narratives mostly about women trapped in conventional lifestyles; her narratives explored the multiple and potential meanings behind each word. Her experiments with language, theme, and form produced works of great interest to the feminist and general reader alike, as exemplified in Laços de família (1960; Family Ties), perhaps her most famous collection of stories, and in the novels A paixão segundo GH (1964; The Passion According to GH), Agua viva (1973; The Stream of Life), and A hora da estrela (1977; The Hour of the Star). Guimarães Rosa—a doctor, diplomat, polyglot, and writer—first emerged with Sagarana (1946; Eng. trans. Sagarana), a haunting collection of stories about the people of the sertão (backlands) of Minas Gerais state. An erudite and compassionate artist, Guimarães Rosa used language that incorporated elements of oral tradition and was imbued with neologisms, inverted syntax, and lexical transformations. A “universal regionalist” owing to his empathetic treatment of the theological and metaphysical experiences of his humble and marginal characters, he produced among his crowning achievements the stories in Primeiras estórias (1962; “First Stories”; Eng. trans. The Third Bank of the River, and Other Stories), a collection of hopeful epiphanies, and Grande sertão: veredas (1956; “Great Backlands: Paths”; Eng. trans. The Devil to Pay in the Backlands), his 600-page epic masterpiece on honour, courage, love, and treachery that takes the form of a first-person monologue by a backlands outlaw who makes a pact with the Devil to gain revenge.

The Brazilian novel continued to thrive with mid-20th-century novelists such as Lúcio Cardoso, whose Crônica da casa assassinada (1959; “Chronicle of the Assassinated House”) offered new introspective and psychological insights into the many dimensions of reality. Osman Lins, who began writing in the 1950s, built an oeuvre around the self-conscious process of writing in the context of social injustice. His masterpiece, Avalovara (1973; Eng. trans. Avalovara), is an allegory on the art of the novel in which fiction and life become mutually regenerative experiences. Despite other significant novelists such as Fernando Sabino and Érico Lopes Veríssimo, the second half of the 20th century, especially after 1964, the year of the military coup, was dominated by novelists and short-story writers who were responding to censorship, authoritarianism, and other forms of social repression.

On the other hand, after military rule ended in 1985, a new crop of younger writers—frequently former or practicing journalists—surfaced with works invoking such themes as multiculturalism, identity, and the insecurities of modern-day life. The most recognized of these novelists at the turn of the 21st century were Bernardo Carvalho, with his Nove noites (2002; Nine Nights)—about Brazil’s Amazonia, a place where unstable identities abound—and Nelson de Oliveira, whose Subsolo infinito (2000; “Infinite Underground”) is a narrative of delirium set beneath an urban subway system where everything is mutable.

The writing of memoirs, fictional and nonfictional, was also a strong current in long prose works throughout the 20th century. Cyro dos Anjos’s semiautobiographical novel O amanuense Belmiro (1937; Diary of a Civil Servant) depicts a narrator—a passive bureaucrat—who is overwhelmed by life and society, while Pedro Nava’s Baú de ossos (1972; “Trunk of Bones”) is a nonfiction, self-conscious memoir that treats time in a nonlinear fashion. Fictional memorialism reappears continuously in 20th-century narratives and owes much of its forms and perspectives to the autobiographical novels of Machado de Assis.

The theatre

Brazilian theatre truly hit its stride during the modern period, particularly in the 1940s with the Brazilian Comedy Theatre of São Paulo and with the playwright Nelson Rodrigues of Rio de Janeiro, whose Freudian drama Vestido de noiva (1943; The Wedding Dress), with its revolutionary staging and open treatment of sexuality, became one of Brazil’s most important dramas. Concerned with issues of class, machismo, sexual deviancy, incest, violence, and abortion, Rodrigues’s audacious plays have been praised for their different narrative levels. Rodrigues was a precursor to later dramatists such as Plínio Marcos and Oduvaldo Vianna Filho (Vianinha). In 1944 Abdias do Nascimento founded the Black Experimental Theatre in Rio to train blacks as actors and to stage dramas based on black history and culture. In the mid-1950s, alternative forms of theatre such as the Arena of São Paulo—with which were associated dramatists such as Vianna Filho, Gianfrancesco Guarnieri, and Augusto Boal, all of whom were political activists—used the joker figure to criticize Brazil’s social problems and myths. Social theatre from the Northeast received national attention via works by Ariano Suassuna and Alfredo Dias Gomes. Inspired by the Cuban revolution of 1959, new theatres emerged from the Popular Culture Centres founded by the National Students Union. These theatres frequently carried to the lower class the educational messages and pedagogical approaches of the educator and author Paulo Freire. Through the end of the 20th century, Brazilian theatre flourished by keeping step with current issues as well as with the latest innovations in staging and performance, such as in the besteirol (“nonsense”) theatre of Miguel Falabella and others.

Poetry

New poetic voices surfaced under the rubric of the Generation of 1945 and later in the 1950s via the internationally known Concretism movement. The poets of the Generation of 1945 provided a new direction, drawing upon Symbolism, Surrealism, and Hermeticism. From this group João Cabral de Melo Neto and Ledo Ivo distinguished themselves, with Melo Neto regarded as being among Brazil’s greatest poets. His Constructivist poetry is characterized by antilyrical language that emphasizes imagism, social facts, and concrete objects from the harsh landscape of the Northeast. The Concretists broke with their generation by emphasizing graphic space as a structural force. Augusto de Campos and Haroldo de Campos, together with Décio Pignatari, defined concrete poetry in their manifesto of 1958 as something that represents “the critical evolution of forms” through its taking into account “graphic space as a structural agent.” However, in 1959 Ferreira Gullar, who went on to become an influential social poet, established Neoconcretism, which favoured language and subjectivity over graphic space.

Other experimentalist poetic projects continued through the 1970s and acquired such names as Praxism, Semiotics, and Process-Poem. The popular Violão de Rua (“Street Guitar”) movement was oriented toward mass participation and international social consciousness. The term poesia marginal (“marginal poetry”) embraces noncommercial networks of poetry and represents diverse practices that are marginal in their unconventional production and distribution, in their “uncultured” forms, and in their opposition to the repressive military dictatorship that ruled Brazil from 1964 to 1985. During this period, two acclaimed female poets emerged: Ana Cristina César, with her urban, tormented, feminist voice, and Adélia Prado, who produced earthy yet mystical verses.