Fueled by fervent literary nationalism and anti-Americanism, by the expansion of new presses and literary magazines, and by the beckoning of avant-garde forms, poetry blossomed after 1960. Prolific, ribald, and iconoclastic, Irving Layton published 48 volumes of poetry celebrating life in memorable lyric lines and lambasting Canadian sexual puritanism and social and political cowardice. Much admired for his The Martyrology (books 1–9, 1972–93), an investigation into language and the self, bp Nichol (Barrie Phillip Nichol) explored concrete and sound poetry, as did bill bissett and Steve McCaffery. Many of Canada’s novelists—including Margaret Atwood, Michael Ondaatje, George Bowering, Leonard Cohen, and Dionne Brand—were poets first. Atwood’s The Circle Game (1966), Power Politics (1971), and Two-Headed Poems (1978) are laconic, ironic commentaries on contemporary mores and sexual politics: “you fit into me / like a hook into an eye / a fish hook / an open eye.” In The Journals of Susanna Moodie (1970), Atwood translated the 19th-century author of Roughing It in the Bush into a modern figure of alienation. Her Morning in the Burned House (1995) invokes popular and classical myths, the elegy, history, and the personal lyric. Ondaatje also turned to historical personae in his collage The Collected Works of Billy the Kid (1970), as did Bowering in his long poem George, Vancouver (1970). Daphne Marlatt reinvented a fishing and canning town’s past in Steveston (1974), and Robert Kroetsch explored his Prairie roots in Field Notes (1981)—both important examples, along with Bowering’s Kerrisdale Elegies (1984), of the serial long poem, another variation on the documentary mode. In Handwriting (1998) Ondaatje returned to his birthplace, Sri Lanka. Fascination with place and history also permeates Al Purdy’s poems about the country north of Belleville, Ont., and about his travels west and to the Arctic (Being Alive, 1978) and to the Soviet Union (Piling Blood, 1984; The Collected Poems of Al Purdy, 1986). The landscape of southwestern Saskatchewan figures centrally in the poetry of Lorna Crozier (Angels of Flesh, Angels of Silence, 1988; What the Living Won’t Let Go, 1999). Also from Saskatchewan, Karen Solie (Short Haul Engine, 2001; Modern and Normal, 2005) is intrigued by physics, fractals, and the landscape. Fred Wah, one of the founders (along with Bowering and Frank Davey) of the Vancouver poetry magazine Tish, explored his roots in the Kootenays in Pictograms from the Interior of B.C. (1975), later turning to his mixed heritage and Chinese background in Rooftops (1988) and So Far (1991). David Zieroth (who has also published as Dale Zieroth) recalled his childhood on a Manitoba farm in When the Stones Fly Up (1985) and The Village of Sliding Time (2006) and meditated on everyday moments in Crows Do Not Have Retirement (2001).

Margaret Avison (Winter Sun/The Dumbfounding, 1982), Anne Wilkinson (The Collected Poems of Anne Wilkinson, 1968), Gwendolyn MacEwen (The Poetry of Gwendolyn MacEwen, 1994), Phyllis Webb (Selected Poems: The Vision Tree, 1982), D.G. Jones (A Throw of Particles, 1983; Grounding Sight, 1999), E.D. Blodgett (Apostrophes series), and Don Coles (Forests of the Medieval World, 1993; Kurgan, 2000) grapple with metaphysical and mystical concerns through images drawn from places, travel, mythology, and nature. Sharon Thesen (The Beginning of the Long Dash, 1987; Aurora, 1995; A Pair of Scissors, 2001) and Don McKay (Field Marks, 2006) spin evocative poems out of historical events, key personages, the natural world, and the quotidian. The desire of women to express their distinctive voices and experiences in nonconventional forms also resulted in a surge of feminist literary journals (Room of One’s Own, Atlantis, Tessera, Fireweed) and presses. Collections by Marlatt (Touch to My Tongue, 1984; This Tremor Love Is, 2001) and Di Brandt (Questions I Asked My Mother, 1987; Jerusalem, Beloved, 1995) reenvision language, sexuality, and subjectivity through a feminist, lesbian, and theoretical lens. Anne Carson writes playful poems that interweave contemporary and past voices. In Autobiography of Red (1998)—the story of the winged red monster Geryon and his doomed love for Herakles—she draws on the Greek poet Stesichoros, while in The Beauty of the Husband: A Fictional Essay in 29 Tangos (2001) she invokes English poet John Keats. A classics scholar, Carson has also translated Euripides’ plays (Grief Lessons, 2006) and Sappho’s poems (If Not, Winter, 2002). Poets who engage in virtuoso and highly experimental probings of language include Lisa Robertson (XEclogue, 1993, rev. ed. 1999; The Weather, 2001) and Christian Bök (Eunoia, 2001). In Sheep’s Vigil by a Fervent Person (2001) and Little Theatres; or, Aturuxos Calados (2005), Erin Mouré offers inventive translations of Portuguese and Galician authors as she explores ideas of local and global citizenship and community.

Inflected by anger and sorrow, Marie Annharte Baker (Being on the Moon, 1990), Chrystos (Fire Power, 1995), Beth Brant (Mohawk Trail, 1985), and Marilyn Dumont (A Really Good Brown Girl, 1996) protest stereotypes of First Nations and Métis. Dionne Brand’s No Language Is Neutral (1990) and Marlene Nourbese Philip’s She Tries Her Tongue, Her Silence Softly Breaks (1988) challenge the colonization, sexism, and racism of the English language, while George Elliott Clarke’s collage Whylah Falls (1990) uncovers the life of Canadian blacks in a 1930s Nova Scotia village. In mapping arrivals and departures through an increasing diversity of voices and selves, celebrating and mourning differences, and protesting coercion, constraint, and smugness in a bountiful array of forms from sonnet to ghazal to documentary long poem, Canadian poets have opened the country of the mind and the minds of the country.